Crassocephalum crepidioides
(redflower ragleaf)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Seedling Caption C. crepidioides seedling. Copyright ©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK	Seedling	C. crepidioides seedling.	©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK
Title Leaves Caption The leaves of C. crepidioides are 8-18 x 2-5.5 cm. Copyright Ross Lubigan/IRRI	Leaves	The leaves of C. crepidioides are 8-18 x 2-5.5 cm.	Ross Lubigan/IRRI
Title Flowering shoot Caption Flowering shoot of C. crepidioides. Copyright ©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK	Flowering shoot	Flowering shoot of C. crepidioides.	©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK
Title Flowering plants Caption Copyright Maritz Galinato/IRRI	Flowering plants		Maritz Galinato/IRRI
Title Flowers (detail) Caption Flowers are yellow to reddish-brown; pappus is white. Copyright Maritz Galinato/IRRI	Flowers (detail)	Flowers are yellow to reddish-brown; pappus is white.	Maritz Galinato/IRRI
Title Whole plant - line drawing Caption An erect, sparingly branched aromatic annual herb, 40-100 cm tall. (a) Achene with pappus. Copyright SEAMEO-BIOTROP	Whole plant - line drawing	An erect, sparingly branched aromatic annual herb, 40-100 cm tall. (a) Achene with pappus.	SEAMEO-BIOTROP

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore

Preferred Common Name

• redflower ragleaf

Other Scientific Names

• Crassocephalum crepidioides f. luteum (Steen.) Belcher
• Crassocephalum crepidioides var. lutea Steen
• Gynura crepidioides Benth. (1849)
• Gynura diversifolia Sch.Bip. ex Asch.
• Gynura microcephala Vatke
• Gynura polycephala Benth.
• Senecio crepidioides Benth

International Common Names

• English: ebolo; fireweed; thickhead
• Chinese: ye tong hao

Local Common Names

• Fiji: pua lele; se vuka
• Indonesia: jukut jamalok
• Indonesia/Java: jewor; sintrong
• Japan: benibanaborogiku
• Papua New Guinea: thick head
• Philippines: bulak manok
• Samoa: fua lele; vao lele
• Thailand: phak pet maeo
• Tonga: fisi puna

EPPO code

• CRSCR (Crassocephalum crepidioides)

Summary of Invasiveness

C. crepidiodes is an invasive herb included in the Global Compendium of Weeds and classified as one of the most aggressive weeds occurring in tropical and subtropical regions (Randall, 2012). It is a pioneer species with the capability to produce large amounts of hairy wind-dispersed seeds. However, Chen et al. (2009) suggest that seed dispersal ability is limited. Chen et al. (2009) report that the species has only a moderate invasive capacity and that its wide distribution in China possibly correlates with its cultivation.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Asterales
•                         Family: Asteraceae
•                             Genus: Crassocephalum
•                                 Species: Crassocephalum crepidioides

Description

C. crepidioides is an erect, sparingly branched aromatic annual herb, 40-100 cm tall. Stem rather stout, soft, ribbed, apically with short, thick hairs, lower down glabrescent; branches densely pubescent. Leaves helically arranged, elliptic, oblong or obovate-elliptic, acute or acuminate, pinnately lobed or pinnatifid, irregularly serrate, very thinly pubescent or glabrous, 8-18 x 2-5.5 cm; base tapered and often long-decurrent into the petiole; uppermost leaves smaller, sessile. Heads in terminal, rather small corymbs, homogamous, many-flowered, cylindrical, 13-16 x 5-6 mm, nodding during anthesis, afterwards erect; bracts linear, 0.5-10 cm long, peduncles densely pubescent; outer involucral bracts free, linear, 1-4 mm long, unequal, inner ones subequal, 1-2 seriate, green with dark-brown, acute, papillose tops, lanceolate, 8-12 mm long, thinly hairy, erect during anthesis, pellucid-marginate, cohering into a cylindrical tube, ultimately spreading, reflexed; hypanthium flat, epaleate, alveolate, alveoles with membranous rim. Flowers equal, bisexual; corolla yellow throughout, 9-11 mm long, tubular; tube long, very slender, funnel-shaped, circa 1 mm long, 5-fid limb. Anthers with entire or shallowly incised base, purple, apex acute. Style bifid, arms long, thin, their truncate, more or less penicilliate top tipped by a subulate appendix. Achenes cylindric-linear, ribbed, dark-brown with paler base and apex, thinly pubescent, 2 mm long; pappus hairs numerous, thin, silky, minutely toothed, white, caducous, 9-10 mm long (Kostermans et al., 1987).

Distribution

C. crepidioides is native to tropical Africa. It has become widely distributed eastwards out of Africa and Madagascar into the East Indies, India, South-East Asia and the Philippines, and it is still actively spreading, with a first record as a weed in Peninsular Malaysia published in 2009 (Kiew, 2009). It was first recorded in the Ryukyu Archipelago (Japan) in 1955 (Belcher, 1955).

Because this weed is often confused with Erechtites valerianaefolia, the full extent of its spread into the Orient may not be appreciated.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Habitat

C. crepidioides is found mainly in the humid tropics at altitudes from 15-200 m up to 2500 m above sea level. It invades bare areas but disappears under shaded conditions. Soerjani et al. (1987) list it from arable land, by rivers and roadsides, on tea and chinchoma plantations, particularly in wet localities, and in upland ricefields. It occurs in newly opened or existing shifting cultivation fields, open areas of upland fields, waste places, orchards, coffee plantations, and newly sown pastures (Tjitrosoedirdjo, 1991).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

C. crepidioides may be found infesting young tea plantations (Sastroutomo and Pandegirot, 1988), in rice, taro, coffee, citrus, sweet potatoes, vegetable crops, orchards and pastures.

Growth Stages

Biology and Ecology

The chromosome number in C. crepidiodes is 2n = 40 (Henderson, 1973; Vanijajiva and Kadereit, 2009). Hybrids with C. rubens have been recorded in north Thailand (Vanijajiva and Kadereit, 2009).

C. crepidioides is an annual weed that flowers all year round with a high seed production capacity. It is able to produce 29 flowers with approximately 4379 seeds per plant, reaching a plant density of 70.5 individuals per square metre in tea plantations. The seeds have a pappus of 10-11 mm and are therefore easily blown by wind soon after they have become detached from the mature inflorescence. The many seeds that are produced are thus spread rapidly.

Sauerborn and Koch (1988) found that C. crepidioides germinated at temperatures between 10 and 40°C: the lower limit of germination temperature explains the incidence at high altitudes. Nakamura and Hossain (2009) report a germination range of 10-30°C, with an optimum of 15-20°C. Seeds germinate over a wide pH range (2-12), with the highest germination rate at between pH 4 and 10. Germination rate was drastically reduced after one year, and emergence is high on the soil surface while no seedlings emerged from a depth of over 1 cm (Nakamura and Hossainm 2009). Chen et al. (2009) report that seeds have no apparent dormancy and retain high viability after room storage for 10 months.

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Notes on Natural Enemies

Apety (1994) noted the action of a beetle Neolamprina (=Lamprina) sp. in Papua New Guinea. This weed is also attacked by Pseudomonas solanacearum in Australia (Pegg and Moffett, 1971).

Yogesh Kumar et al. (2011) report vein yellowing disease on C. crepidiodes growing as a weed in subtemperate northern India. The disease was associated with Ageratum enation virus (AEV), along with a nanovirus like satellite DNA 1.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

C. crepidiodes produces seeds with silky pappus hairs (plumed seeds) that can be easily dispersed by wind and/or water (Denton, 2004).

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

C. crepidioides is described as the most common weed in higher-altitude tea in Sri Lanka (Luxmei de Silva and Ranamukaarachchi, 1994) and as an inportant weed of tea in Indonesia (Tjitrosoedirdjo, 1987). It can also occur in a range of other crops, including rice, taro, coffee, citrus, sweet potatoes, orchards and pastures. It may act as an alternative host for the ginger strain of Pseudomonas solanacearum (Pegg and Moffett, 1971).

Environmental Impact

Once established, C. crepidiodes seedlings grow fast and have the potential to form dense thickets displacing native vegetation. C. crepidiodes is also a common weed in abandoned and active agricultural lands, waste places, plantations, and gardens. Although C. crepidiodes is a pioneer species, it grows well under shaded conditions in the understory of the forests and plantations (Denton, 2004; PIER, 2012).

Uses

C. crepidiodes is eaten by humans in many countries in Africa. Succulent leaves and stems are used as a vegetable in soups and stews, especially in West and Central Africa. In Sierra Leone the leaves are also popular and are made into a sauce with groundnut paste. In Australia this species is eaten as a salad green, either cooked or raw.

C. crepidiodes is also used in traditional African medicine to treat indigestion, stomach ache, epilepsy, sleeping sickness, and swollen lips. Tomimori et al. (2012) report antitumour activity associated with nitric oxide production. Aniya et al. (2005) found that it is a potent antioxidant and protects against hepatotoxicity.

C. crepidiodes is also used as green fodder for poultry and livestock (Denton, 2004).

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

In parts of Asia where both species have been introduced, there has been frequent confusion between C. crepidioides and Erechtites valerianaefolia, of American origin. Tjitrosoedirdjo (1987) provides useful guidance to their separation. The leaves of C. crepidioides are lobed at the base but the upper half of the leaf is undivided whereas those of E. valerianaefolia are deeply and regularly pinnatifid for most of their length. In C. crepidioides the involucral bracts are green and brown (versus green only), the flowers yellow to reddish brown (versus yellow to reddish violet), achenes 2 mm long (versus 3 mm) and pappus white (versus reddish violet in the upper half). C. crepidioides rarely exceeds 1 m high (versus up to 2 m).

There can also be confusion with other Crassocephalum species.

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Manual Control

C. crepidioides may be found infesting young tea plantations (Sastroutomo and Pandegirot, 1988), where it is usually associated with relatively wide open spaces between young trees, growing together with other annual weeds such as Ageratum conyzoides and Galinsoga parviflora that can be controlled manually through light soil cultivation. However, manual weeding is labour intensive: 8-12 weedings are needed each year, with 15-20 people working per hectare for each session (Sanusi, 1977).

Chemical Control

C. crepidioides is susceptible to glyphosate and to glufosinate, but is not successfully controlled by paraquat beyond the seedling stage. Conversely, 2,4-D may be more effective on more mature plants (Laxmei de Silva and Ranamukaarachchi, 1994). Pre-emergence, oxyfluorfen is more effective than either linuron or diuron (Sanusi and Sabur, 1987; Laxmei de Silva and Ranamukaarachchi, 1994). Performance of paraquat may be improved by mixture with diuron (Isdiyanto and Pasaribu, 1988), but in some localities (for example, the highlands of Malaysia), where paraquat has been used repeatedly, highly paraquat-resistant biotypes have now developed (Itoh et al., 1992; Itoh, 1994).  Ismail et al. (2001a) report paraquat resistance in C. crepidioides growing in tomato and cabbage fields in the Cameron Highlands of Malaysia. Resistance may be associated with differential translocation of paraquat in resistant and susceptible biotypes, and with superoxide disumtase activity (Ismail et al., 2001a,b).

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Contributors

26/07/13 Updated by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps