Crassocephalum crepidioides (redflower ragleaf)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore
Preferred Common Name
- redflower ragleaf
Other Scientific Names
- Crassocephalum crepidioides f. luteum (Steen.) Belcher
- Crassocephalum crepidioides var. lutea Steen
- Gynura crepidioides Benth. (1849)
- Gynura diversifolia Sch.Bip. ex Asch.
- Gynura microcephala Vatke
- Gynura polycephala Benth.
- Senecio crepidioides Benth
International Common Names
- English: ebolo; fireweed; thickhead
- Chinese: ye tong hao
Local Common Names
- Fiji: pua lele; se vuka
- Indonesia: jukut jamalok
- Indonesia/Java: jewor; sintrong
- Japan: benibanaborogiku
- Papua New Guinea: thick head
- Philippines: bulak manok
- Samoa: fua lele; vao lele
- Thailand: phak pet maeo
- Tonga: fisi puna
EPPO code
- CRSCR (Crassocephalum crepidioides)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageC. crepidiodes is an invasive herb included in the Global Compendium of Weeds and classified as one of the most aggressive weeds occurring in tropical and subtropical regions (Randall, 2012). It is a pioneer species with the capability to produce large amounts of hairy wind-dispersed seeds. However, Chen et al. (2009) suggest that seed dispersal ability is limited. Chen et al. (2009) report that the species has only a moderate invasive capacity and that its wide distribution in China possibly correlates with its cultivation.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Crassocephalum
- Species: Crassocephalum crepidioides
Description
Top of pageC. crepidioides is an erect, sparingly branched aromatic annual herb, 40-100 cm tall. Stem rather stout, soft, ribbed, apically with short, thick hairs, lower down glabrescent; branches densely pubescent. Leaves helically arranged, elliptic, oblong or obovate-elliptic, acute or acuminate, pinnately lobed or pinnatifid, irregularly serrate, very thinly pubescent or glabrous, 8-18 x 2-5.5 cm; base tapered and often long-decurrent into the petiole; uppermost leaves smaller, sessile. Heads in terminal, rather small corymbs, homogamous, many-flowered, cylindrical, 13-16 x 5-6 mm, nodding during anthesis, afterwards erect; bracts linear, 0.5-10 cm long, peduncles densely pubescent; outer involucral bracts free, linear, 1-4 mm long, unequal, inner ones subequal, 1-2 seriate, green with dark-brown, acute, papillose tops, lanceolate, 8-12 mm long, thinly hairy, erect during anthesis, pellucid-marginate, cohering into a cylindrical tube, ultimately spreading, reflexed; hypanthium flat, epaleate, alveolate, alveoles with membranous rim. Flowers equal, bisexual; corolla yellow throughout, 9-11 mm long, tubular; tube long, very slender, funnel-shaped, circa 1 mm long, 5-fid limb. Anthers with entire or shallowly incised base, purple, apex acute. Style bifid, arms long, thin, their truncate, more or less penicilliate top tipped by a subulate appendix. Achenes cylindric-linear, ribbed, dark-brown with paler base and apex, thinly pubescent, 2 mm long; pappus hairs numerous, thin, silky, minutely toothed, white, caducous, 9-10 mm long (Kostermans et al., 1987).
Distribution
Top of pageC. crepidioides is native to tropical Africa. It has become widely distributed eastwards out of Africa and Madagascar into the East Indies, India, South-East Asia and the Philippines, and it is still actively spreading, with a first record as a weed in Peninsular Malaysia published in 2009 (Kiew, 2009). It was first recorded in the Ryukyu Archipelago (Japan) in 1955 (Belcher, 1955).
Because this weed is often confused with Erechtites valerianaefolia, the full extent of its spread into the Orient may not be appreciated.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 14 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Angola | Present | Native | |||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | |||||
Burundi | Present | Native | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Native | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Native | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Native | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Native | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | |||||
Gabon | Present | Native | |||||
Ghana | Present | Native | |||||
Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Native | |||||
Kenya | Present | Native | |||||
Liberia | Present | Original citation: Adams, 1963 | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Native | |||||
Malawi | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Native | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Native | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Native | |||||
South Africa | Present | Native | |||||
Sudan | Present | Native | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | |||||
Uganda | Present | Native | |||||
Zambia | Present | Native | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1963 | ||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | |||||
China | Present | Introduced | First reported: 1930* | ||||
-Anhui | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | ||||||
-Guizhou | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hubei | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hunan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Jiangxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Shaanxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sichuan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tibet | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | 1953 | ||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Assam | Present | ||||||
-Meghalaya | Present | ||||||
-Odisha | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Java | Present | ||||||
-Maluku Islands | Present | ||||||
-Sulawesi | Present | ||||||
-Sumatra | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | 1946 | ||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | ||||||
Laos | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nepal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | 1984 | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | 1982 | ||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Turkey | Present | Introduced | 1980 | ||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Yemen | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1955 | ||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Space and Flynn (2002) | |||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Invasive |
Habitat
Top of pageC. crepidioides is found mainly in the humid tropics at altitudes from 15-200 m up to 2500 m above sea level. It invades bare areas but disappears under shaded conditions. Soerjani et al. (1987) list it from arable land, by rivers and roadsides, on tea and chinchoma plantations, particularly in wet localities, and in upland ricefields. It occurs in newly opened or existing shifting cultivation fields, open areas of upland fields, waste places, orchards, coffee plantations, and newly sown pastures (Tjitrosoedirdjo, 1991).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageC. crepidioides may be found infesting young tea plantations (Sastroutomo and Pandegirot, 1988), in rice, taro, coffee, citrus, sweet potatoes, vegetable crops, orchards and pastures.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Camellia sinensis (tea) | Theaceae | Main | |
Citrus | Rutaceae | Other | |
Coffea (coffee) | Rubiaceae | Other | |
Colocasia esculenta (taro) | Araceae | Other | |
Emilia sonchifolia (red tasselflower) | Asteraceae | Unknown | |
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) | Convolvulaceae | Other | |
Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Unknown | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
pastures | Other |
Biology and Ecology
Top of page
The chromosome number in C. crepidiodes is 2n = 40 (Henderson, 1973; Vanijajiva and Kadereit, 2009). Hybrids with C. rubens have been recorded in north Thailand (Vanijajiva and Kadereit, 2009).
C. crepidioides is an annual weed that flowers all year round with a high seed production capacity. It is able to produce 29 flowers with approximately 4379 seeds per plant, reaching a plant density of 70.5 individuals per square metre in tea plantations. The seeds have a pappus of 10-11 mm and are therefore easily blown by wind soon after they have become detached from the mature inflorescence. The many seeds that are produced are thus spread rapidly.
Sauerborn and Koch (1988) found that C. crepidioides germinated at temperatures between 10 and 40°C: the lower limit of germination temperature explains the incidence at high altitudes. Nakamura and Hossain (2009) report a germination range of 10-30°C, with an optimum of 15-20°C. Seeds germinate over a wide pH range (2-12), with the highest germination rate at between pH 4 and 10. Germination rate was drastically reduced after one year, and emergence is high on the soil surface while no seedlings emerged from a depth of over 1 cm (Nakamura and Hossainm 2009). Chen et al. (2009) report that seeds have no apparent dormancy and retain high viability after room storage for 10 months.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 30 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 500 | 1500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageApety (1994) noted the action of a beetle Neolamprina (=Lamprina) sp. in Papua New Guinea. This weed is also attacked by Pseudomonas solanacearum in Australia (Pegg and Moffett, 1971).
Yogesh Kumar et al. (2011) report vein yellowing disease on C. crepidiodes growing as a weed in subtemperate northern India. The disease was associated with Ageratum enation virus (AEV), along with a nanovirus like satellite DNA 1.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageC. crepidiodes produces seeds with silky pappus hairs (plumed seeds) that can be easily dispersed by wind and/or water (Denton, 2004).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Consumed as a vegetable | Yes | Yes | Denton (2004) |
Forage | Used as green fodder | Yes | Yes | Denton (2004) |
Horticulture | Consumed as a vegetable | Yes | Yes | Denton (2004) |
People foraging | Consumed as a vegetable | Yes | Yes | Denton (2004) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Water | Seeds with silky pappus hairs | Yes | Denton (2004) | |
Wind | Seeds with silky pappus hairs | Yes | Yes | Denton (2004) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageC. crepidioides is described as the most common weed in higher-altitude tea in Sri Lanka (Luxmei de Silva and Ranamukaarachchi, 1994) and as an inportant weed of tea in Indonesia (Tjitrosoedirdjo, 1987). It can also occur in a range of other crops, including rice, taro, coffee, citrus, sweet potatoes, orchards and pastures. It may act as an alternative host for the ginger strain of Pseudomonas solanacearum (Pegg and Moffett, 1971).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageOnce established, C. crepidiodes seedlings grow fast and have the potential to form dense thickets displacing native vegetation. C. crepidiodes is also a common weed in abandoned and active agricultural lands, waste places, plantations, and gardens. Although C. crepidiodes is a pioneer species, it grows well under shaded conditions in the understory of the forests and plantations (Denton, 2004; PIER, 2012).
Uses
Top of pageC. crepidiodes is eaten by humans in many countries in Africa. Succulent leaves and stems are used as a vegetable in soups and stews, especially in West and Central Africa. In Sierra Leone the leaves are also popular and are made into a sauce with groundnut paste. In Australia this species is eaten as a salad green, either cooked or raw.
C. crepidiodes is also used in traditional African medicine to treat indigestion, stomach ache, epilepsy, sleeping sickness, and swollen lips. Tomimori et al. (2012) report antitumour activity associated with nitric oxide production. Aniya et al. (2005) found that it is a potent antioxidant and protects against hepatotoxicity.
C. crepidiodes is also used as green fodder for poultry and livestock (Denton, 2004).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Human food and beverage
- Flour/starch
- Leaves (for beverage)
- Vegetable
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of page
In parts of Asia where both species have been introduced, there has been frequent confusion between C. crepidioides and Erechtites valerianaefolia, of American origin. Tjitrosoedirdjo (1987) provides useful guidance to their separation. The leaves of C. crepidioides are lobed at the base but the upper half of the leaf is undivided whereas those of E. valerianaefolia are deeply and regularly pinnatifid for most of their length. In C. crepidioides the involucral bracts are green and brown (versus green only), the flowers yellow to reddish brown (versus yellow to reddish violet), achenes 2 mm long (versus 3 mm) and pappus white (versus reddish violet in the upper half). C. crepidioides rarely exceeds 1 m high (versus up to 2 m).
There can also be confusion with other Crassocephalum species.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Manual Control
C. crepidioides may be found infesting young tea plantations (Sastroutomo and Pandegirot, 1988), where it is usually associated with relatively wide open spaces between young trees, growing together with other annual weeds such as Ageratum conyzoides and Galinsoga parviflora that can be controlled manually through light soil cultivation. However, manual weeding is labour intensive: 8-12 weedings are needed each year, with 15-20 people working per hectare for each session (Sanusi, 1977).
Chemical Control
C. crepidioides is susceptible to glyphosate and to glufosinate, but is not successfully controlled by paraquat beyond the seedling stage. Conversely, 2,4-D may be more effective on more mature plants (Laxmei de Silva and Ranamukaarachchi, 1994). Pre-emergence, oxyfluorfen is more effective than either linuron or diuron (Sanusi and Sabur, 1987; Laxmei de Silva and Ranamukaarachchi, 1994). Performance of paraquat may be improved by mixture with diuron (Isdiyanto and Pasaribu, 1988), but in some localities (for example, the highlands of Malaysia), where paraquat has been used repeatedly, highly paraquat-resistant biotypes have now developed (Itoh et al., 1992; Itoh, 1994). Ismail et al. (2001a) report paraquat resistance in C. crepidioides growing in tomato and cabbage fields in the Cameron Highlands of Malaysia. Resistance may be associated with differential translocation of paraquat in resistant and susceptible biotypes, and with superoxide disumtase activity (Ismail et al., 2001a,b).
References
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Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. [English title not available]. (Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica)., San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
DAISIE, 2013. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web., Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2011. [English title not available]. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses., Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 146 pp.
Meyer JY, 2007. (Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]))., Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche. 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan: National Plant Protection Centre. vi + 236 pp.
Raulerson L, 2006. Checklist of Plants of the Mariana Islands. In: University of Guam Herbarium Contribution, 37 1-69.
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. In: USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, USDA Forest Service. 51.
Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, USDA Forest Service.
Space JC, Waterhouse B, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service. 174 pp.
Swarbrick JT, 1997. Environmental weeds and exotic plants on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Report to Parks Australia. In: Weed Science Consultancy, [ed. by Swarbrick JT]. 131 pp.
Tjitrosoedirdjo SS, 1991. Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore. In: Weed Info Sheet No. 4, Bogor, Indonesia: SEAWIC-BIOTROP.
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Wagner WI, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, revised edition., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press.
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Contributors
Top of page26/07/13 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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