Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Coix lacryma-jobi
Preferred Common Name
- Job's-tears
Other Scientific Names
- Coix agrestis Lour.
- Coix agrestis var. maxima (Makino) Nakai
- Coix arundinacea Lam.
- Coix exaltata Jacq. ex Spreng.
- Coix lacryma L., nom. illeg.
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. maxima Makino
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Rom.Caill.) Stapf
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. novoguineensis Pilg.
- Coix lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa Oliv.
- Coix ouwehandii Koord.
- Coix ovata Stokes, nom. illeg.
- Coix palustris Koord.
- Coix pendula Salisb., nom. illeg.
- Coix pumila Roxb.
- Coix stigmatosa K. Koch & C.D. Bouché
- Lithagrostis lacryma-jobi (L.) Gaertn.
- Sphaerium lacryma (L.) Kuntze, nom. illeg.
International Common Names
- English: adlay; adlay millet
- Spanish: lágrimas de Job; Lagrimas de San Pedro; lágrimas de San Pedro; lágrimas de señora
- French: coix larme de Job; grains de Job; larme de Job; Larmes de Job
- Arabic: damu ayub
- Chinese: yi mi; yiyi
- Portuguese: erva dos rosários; lágrima-de-nossa-senhora
Local Common Names
- Bangladesh: siba
- Benin: larmes du Joab
- Bhutan: bo-hoem; boma; boom; buma kaam; bumar karchu; cheem ho chum; chungma; chungme; crotokpai; deokush; garay-malo; lhamboumba; nangchung phrengma; pinmar; pompaling; sekam; tektekma
- Bolivia: lágrima de María
- Brazil: biuri; capia; capim-de-contas; capim-missanga; capim-rosario; conta-de-lágrima; lagrima-de-Jo; tsiku
- Cambodia: skuöy
- China: yi mi; yi yi; zhai guo yi yi
- Congo Democratic Republic: mashangu
- Cook Islands: poepoe
- Costa Rica: adlay; cuentas de San Pedro; trigo adlay
- Côte d'Ivoire: manquassèm
- Cuba: camándula; cuentas de doña Juana; lágrimas de Moisés; millo chino; santa Juana; santa maría
- Dominican Republic: cuenta de la virgen; larmilles des Indes; santa lucía; santa maría
- El Salvador: zacate de perla
- Fiji: sila
- France: herbe à chapelets; larmille
- French Polynesia: poepoe
- Germany: hiobs- traenengras
- Ghana: agu; ahwinie ; akrokosebia; job n’ani nsuwa; owu-amma-mankã m’asem = death makes me mute
- Guinea: a-mber-kesy; bonco; fondo; forono; wa-kometa
- Haiti: graines chapelet; graines maldioc; graines réglisse; larmilles des Indes
- Hungary: jób könnye; könnyfű
- India: adavi guruginja; ashru bija; chaning; gavedhu; gavedhukah; gurgur; gurlu; jargadi; kasai; kasai; kasi; kattu kundumani; kattugotampu; manjutti; netpavalum; ran jamdhlo; ran-maka; ranmakkai; samkru; sanklee; sankru; sohriu
- Indonesia: anjalai; hajeli; hanjere; hankeli; jali; jali betul; jali watu; japen; jelai; jelai batu; jelai pulut; jelen; kenjeali; menjelai; perara; rumput jelai; senjeali
- Italy: lacrima di Giobbe
- Japan: hato-mugi; juzudama; juzudama; juzu-dama; zyudu-dama
- Korea, DPR: gusuljulmu; julmu; julmu
- Korea, Republic of: gusuljulmu; gusuljulmu; julmu
- Laos: düay
- Liberia: Zã
- Malaysia: batak; biji bali; buah jail; dalai; jali batu; jali-jali; jelai; jelai batu; jelai pulut; jilai; lanchang; melai tikus; menjelai; senjelai
- Mayotte: loulou masera; tasoumbihin loulou; tassoubi massera
- Mexico: acayacotl; acayacoyoth; acayocoyotl; arrocillo; batagá; collar de maiz; collarcillo; ishlacashtajad; ishlacashtajat; lágrima; lagrimilla; pasto; san pedro; soguilla; sonajilla; suuk-paen; tzacat tapisno; zacate; zacate de cuentas
- Micronesia: fetin umuno; rosario
- Myanmar: ka-leik; kalein; kalein-thi; kyeik
- Nepal: bhirkaunlo; genduri; gwenchhi; jabe; jargedi; taktriya
- Netherlands: jobstranen
- New Zealand: tangatanga
- Nigeria: aká-ịla = corn bead; ngkwà eto; nkwà ikọ̀t
- Niue: tagataga; tangatanga
- Pakistan: sanklu
- Palau: demairush; demairuuch; pa nga ruiz; tauiir; taviir
- Papua New Guinea: karikari
- Peru: perla vegetal
- Philippines: abúkai; adlái; agágai; aglái; alimúdias; atákai; Balantákan; barubaióko; bilen; bintíkai; damáu; katigbí; kibaoung; koldásan; Kudlásan; lamúdias; liás; paiás; paliás; pintáka; tidbí; Tigbí; tigbíkai
- Puerto Rico: camándulas lágrimas de Jacobo
- Réunion: herbe à chapelets; job
- Samoa: sagasaga; sagisagi; sanasana
- Sao Tome and Principe: capim-de-nossa-senhora
- Senegal: balifõ; boror; foror; ma-karamba-késé; ñammaket; porola
- Seychelles: herbe collier; herbe Job
- Sierra Leone: am-polo; boboni-volo; bohori; bongkori; e-pereka; folo; foro; foronde-tasebia; forondo; forondo-mese; gbegbe-na; gbegbe-tasabia-na; gboe; gbolo; gbolopko; gboye; jina-forondo; kali bagi; kpetehu-volo; kpoklo-le; kpokolo-le; ma-polo; matomperega; pu-boe; sankala; sisig; yiri-foronde
- Sri Lanka: kirindi
- Thailand: Duai; maduai
- Tonga: hana; hana tuikahoa
- USA/Hawaii: ‘ohe‘ohe; kūkaekōlea; kūkaekōlea; pū'ohe'ohe; pūpū kōlea
- Vanuatu: butsu wasil; Mwahile hile; wasil
- Vietnam: bo bo; bo bo nếp; cườm gạo; y dĩ nhọn
EPPO code
- COXLJ (Coix lacryma-jobi)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageCoix lacryma-jobi is a grass indigenous to Southern and Eastern Asia that has been introduced in tropical and warm temperate regions as a cereal, fodder and forage crop, and for its attractive grains which are used as beads for making rosaries, necklaces, and other objects. It has escaped cultivation and become naturalized in more than 90 countries, often occurring as a weed in humid and disturbed sites, along waterways and forest edges, wetlands and swamps. C. lacryma-jobi is a robust grass that grows forming dense and tall clumps that block the flow of waterways and outcompete native vegetation. It is listed as invasive in Singapore, Australia, New Caledonia, the Cook Islands, the Galapagos, Greece Hawaii, French Polynesia, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Jamaica and on many islands in the Pacific and Indian Ocean. It is regarded as potentially invasive in the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Cyperales
- Family: Poaceae
- Genus: Coix
- Species: Coix lacryma-jobi
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageCoix is the sole genus of the subtribe Coicinae in the tribe Andropogonae, comprising 4 closely related species, all native to South-East Asia and Northern Australia with a center of diversity in northeast India (Arora, 1977; Clayton and Renvoize, 1992; Soreng et al., 2015). It is considered one of the most derived genera within the Andropogonae due to its highly specialized, unusual inflorescences (Clayton and Renvoize, 1992).
The taxonomy of this genus has been ill defined and poorly understood mainly due to its extensive cultivation and the vast phenotypic variation occurring within species (Koul, 1974). As Coix lacryma-jobi has been cultivated across Asia for centuries, many cultivars have been developed, as well as varieties selected by farmers for easy husking (Arora, 1977; van den Bergh and Iamsupasit, 1996). About 30 taxa have been described within the genus (several of them varieties or forms of C. lacryma-jobi), but only a small number deserve specific rank. The Plant List (2013) lists the following four accepted names: C. aquatica Roxb., C. gasteenii B.K.Simon, C. lacryma-jobi, and C. puellarum Balansa.
Coix lacryma-jobi was described from India by Linnaeus in 1753. ‘Coix’ derives from ‘koix’, an ancient Greek name used by Theophrastus for a palm of the genus Hyphaene (Quattrocchi, 2012), because of the resemblance of the involucres (or false fruits) of Coix to the fruit of this palm (Wagner et al., 1990). ‘Lacryma’ means tear-drop, and ‘jobi’ alludes to Job, the biblical figure who endured much suffering. Apparently, the ovoid grayish or bluish false fruits of this species resemble or symbolize the tears shed by Job (Clifford and Bostock, 2007).
Three varieties of C. lacryma-jobi are commonly recognized: C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, C. lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa Oliv. and C. lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Rom. Caill.) Stapf. The variety lacryma-jobi is the most common and most widely naturalized. The variety ma-yuen is often cultivated as a food grain (Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is adapted from Wagner et al. (1990) and Thieret (2003):
Robust annual or perennial grass; culms up to 3 m, erect, with solid internodes. Leaves mostly cauline, distichous; sheaths loose, terete, glabrous; ligule membranous, 1.5-2 mm long, with margins erose and minutely fringed; blades linear-lanceolate, 10-75 × 2-6 cm, glabrous. Inflorescences axillary, each consisting of two unisexual racemes, one pistillate, and the other staminate. Pistillate raceme completely enclosed within a globose-ovoid, bony or soft, modified leaf sheath termed involucre or utricule, this usually 8-12 mm long, white, grayish, bluish or black, lustrous; spikelets in the pistillate raceme 3, one sessile and fertile, the upper two rudimentary; lower glumes of the functional pistillate spikelet 6-10 mm long, hyaline below, 5-7 veined, with a 1-3 mm coriaceous beak; florets 2, one sterile, the upper fertile and with the two stigmas protruding from the involucre; lodicules absent. Staminate raceme flexible, borne on a long peduncle that protrudes from the mouth of the involucre, 2-5 cm long, with 3-25 pairs of imbricate spikelets; spikelets 5-9 mm long, dorsally compressed, each with 2 florets; lower glume elliptic to obovate, somewhat asymmetric, with 15 or more veins, chartaceous, margins folded inward, the apex obtuse; upper glume lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, with a keel often winged, the apex acute; lemna 5-8 mm, hyaline, elliptic to ovate, 3-veined; palea similar to lemna but 2-veined; stamens 3, anthers 3-6 mm; lodicules 2. Caryopsis ellipsoid to subglobose, ventrally furrowed, 2.5-5 mm long, enclosed within the involucre.
Based on the shape and hardness of the involucres, three varieties of C. lacryma-jobi are commonly recognized: C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, C. lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa Oliv., and C. lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Rom. Caill.) Stapf. The variety lacryma-jobi has globose to ovoid, bony and glossy involucres. The variety stenocarpa has elongate, bottle-shaped, hard involucres, while the variety ma-yuen has elliptical, striate, soft involucres (Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Distribution
Top of pageCoix lacryma-jobi is generally regarded as having originated in the Eastern Himalayan region and Northern Indochina (comprising parts of Nepal, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam). It has a long history of cultivation in this and other regions of Southern and Eastern Asia mainly as a cereal crop, but also as a decorative grass (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973; Arora, 1977). At present, it is widely naturalized across Asia, Africa, Europe, America, the West Indies, Australia and on many islands in the Pacific and Indian Ocean.
The variety lacryma-jobi is the most widespread and the one that occurs in most countries of America, Africa and Oceania. The variety stenocarpa is distributed in Northeast India, Myanmar, Southern China, Vietnam, Philippines, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The variety ma-yuen occurs in India, Bhutan, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia, but has been also introduced in Honduras and Ecuador (Zuloaga et al., 2003; Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Uige | |||
Benin | Present | Introduced | Atakora, Donga, Collines, Plateau | ||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present | Introduced | Santiago | ||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Central African Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Madagascar | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Naturalized | Antsiranana, Fianarantsoa, Toamasina, Toliara, | |||
Mali | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Potentially invasive | |||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Potentially invasive | |||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Helena | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Togo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Cultivated | |||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Native | |||||
Bhutan | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Borneo | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Lesser Sunda Islands | Present | Introduced | Bali | ||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Sumatra | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Anhui | Present | Native | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Guizhou | Present | Native | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Native | |||||
-Hebei | Present | Native | |||||
-Heilongjiang | Present | Native | |||||
-Henan | Present | Native | |||||
-Hubei | Present | Native | |||||
-Hunan | Present | Native | |||||
-Inner Mongolia | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Liaoning | Present | Native | |||||
-Ningxia | Present | Native | |||||
-Shaanxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Shandong | Present | Native | |||||
-Shanxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Sichuan | Present | Native | |||||
-Xinjiang | Present | Native | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Introduced | Little Andaman, very common | ||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Assam | Present | ||||||
-Gujarat | Present | ||||||
-Karnataka | Present | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | ||||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Manipur | Present | Native | |||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Native | |||||
-Mizoram | Present | Native | |||||
-Nagaland | Present | Native | |||||
-Odisha | Present | ||||||
-Rajasthan | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | Introduced | |||||
Iraq | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Naturalized | Frequently cultivated | |||
Laos | Present | Native | Louangphrabang | ||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-Sabah | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sarawak | Present | Introduced | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | Kachin, Yangon | ||||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | Sind, Punjab, N.W.F.P. and Kashmir. Uncommon | ||||
Palestine | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Reported as native and introduced | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Cultivated | |||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Reported as native and introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | Cultivated | ||||
Turkey | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
France | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Greece | Present | Introduced | Established | ||||
-Crete | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Hungary | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
Italy | Absent, Formerly present | No recent records | |||||
-Sicily | Absent, Formerly present | Extinct | |||||
Malta | Present | Introduced | Established | ||||
Portugal | |||||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | Not established | ||||
-Madeira | Absent, Unconfirmed presence record(s) | ||||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | Established | ||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Tortola | ||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | |||||
-British Columbia | Present | Introduced | Herbarium specimen from cultivation in Vancouver | ||||
-Ontario | Present | Introduced | Herbarium specimen from Norfolk, probably not persistent | ||||
-Quebec | Present | Introduced | Herbarium specimen from Deux-Montagnes | ||||
Costa Rica | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Dominica | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Grenada | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Guadeloupe | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Martinique | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nicaragua | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Panama | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1876 | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Saint Martin | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | 1876 | Invasive | St. Croix | ||
United States | Present | Introduced | 1896 | ||||
-California | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | 1870 | Invasive | Kaua?i, O?ahu, Moloka?i, Maui, Hawai?i | ||
-Iowa | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Jersey | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New York | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ohio | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Manua Islands (Tau) and Tutuila | ||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Southern group (Atiu, Rarotonga, Mangaia), mild invasive | |||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Chuuk | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kosrae | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Pohnpei | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Yap | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Cultivated | |||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Saipan, Tinian, Rota | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Babeldaob, Koror, Ngerkebesang, Peleliu | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
Pitcairn | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Timor-Leste | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Tongatapu, 'Eua, Vava'u | ||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | Pentecost | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Cordoba, Misiones | ||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Adventive and cultivated | ||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Acre | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Paraiba | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Piaui | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | Ephemerophyte | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | 1761 | Naturalized | |||
Ecuador | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | San Crist?bal, Santa Cruz | |||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Cultivated | |||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Cultivated | |||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Amambay | ||||
Peru | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Naturalized | Cultivated | |||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Cultivated | |||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Cultivated |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageCoix lacryma-jobi may have been one of the earliest Asian plants brought into cultivation, perhaps even before rice (Jain and Banerjee, 1974). Starch granules of this species have been recovered from archaeological sites in China dating to the sixth millennium BC (Liu et al., 2014). The involucres have been found in sites of the Ahar culture (ca. 2500 BC) in India (Mishra, 2008), and in many other places throughout Asia, including archeological sites in East Timor as old as 14,800 BP (Vasco Oliveira, 2006), indicating that this plant was transported and spread by people since very early times.
The earliest reference of C. lacryma-jobi in Europe was made by Pliny in his ‘Natural History’ of AD 77 (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973). In Europe it was grown mainly as a garden curiosity for its peculiar bead-like involucres rather than for food (Miller, 1754). It was listed by Lamarck (1792) as cultivated in France, and by Sims (1824) and Sweet (1827) as cultivated as a garden ornamental in the UK since 1596. Sims (1824) reported this species growing spontaneously in Greece, and in Syria, although no other report of its occurrence in this country could be found.
From Europe, C. lacryma-jobi spread to other parts the West (Koul, 1974). It was reported as naturalized on St. Helena by 1875, where it was described as “wild and common in the ravines of the lowlands” (Mellis, 1875). It was likely brought there by the Portuguese, who introduced many plants to the island during the 16th century.
The earliest mention of C. lacryma-jobi in the New World is probably that of Hernández for Mexico in ‘Historia de las plantas de Nueva España’ (1571-1576), where he describes it as a medicinal plant. However, although the description seems to correspond well with this species (“llaman aqui litospermo arundináceo porque tiene hojas de caña y fruto blanco al principio y después negro, lustroso y parecido a cuentas”), the two accompanying illustrations clearly belong to two different monocot species (Canna sp. and Maranta sp.), so this report should be treated with caution (Hernández, 1943).
C. lacryma-jobi was recorded in Colombia by José C. Mutis in 1761 (Pinto-Escobar, 1985), and in French Guiana in 1775 (Aublet, 1775). It was reported for Cuba in 1850, “as cultivated in gardens and fields” (De la Sagra, 1850), and was already naturalized in the French Antilles by 1871 (Husnot and Coutance, 1871).
Coix lacryma-jobi was probably introduced into Africa from India (Stapf, 1917). It was reported only in Algeria and the Canary Islands by Durand and Schinz (1895), which seems to indicate that its spread in this continent occurred relatively recently. By 1917 it was reported for Sierra Leone, Guinea, Liberia, São Tomé and Príncipe, Angola, Kenya and Tanzania (Stapf, 1917). Now this species is naturalized in most African countries, but it is occasionally cultivated. Its main use is for making necklaces and articles of adornment that are often worn at religious occasions (Jansen, 2006).
The introduction of C. lacryma-jobi to Australia also appears to be relatively recent. The species is not mentioned by Bentham (1878), and the oldest herbarium specimens appear to be from 1915 (Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2016). At present, this species can be found naturalized along waterways in major urban centres such as Sydney, Brisbane and Perth (Weed Watch, 2010).
In Hawaii, C. lacryma-jobi was first noted around 1870, but the earliest herbarium specimen was collected in 1903 (Wagner et al., 1990).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Colombia | ca. 1760 | No | No | Pinto-Escobar (1985) | ||||
Puerto Rico | 1876 | No | No | Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez (2015) | ||||
Hawaii | ca. 1870 | No | No | Wagner et al. (1990) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageCoix lacryma-jobi is already widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, and likely present in all countries where it is able to grow.
Habitat
Top of pageCoix lacryma-jobi can be found growing in wet environments. It typically occurs along rivers and stream banks, in marshy valleys, wetlands, wet grasslands and pastures, edges of lakes and reservoirs; also in clearings and disturbed sites of forests, flooded cultivated fields, moist waste places, channels and roadsides ditches (van den Bergh and Iamsupasit, 1996; Más and Garcia-Molinari, 2006; Flora of China, 2017; FAO, 2017). It occurs from sea-level up to 2000 m (Jansen, 2006).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Freshwater | Lakes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Lakes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageCoix lacryma-jobi is reported as a weed in rice fields in Iran, Pakistan, India, Thailand and Philippines (Moody, 1989; Ahmadpour et al., 2013) and in sugarcane fields in Costa Rica (Rojas et al., 2003).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Other |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number of C. lacryma-jobi is 2n=20 (Christopher, 1978; Arago et al., 1997). Since the base number of the genus Coix is x=5, it has been suggested that this species is a tetraploid resulting from the crossing of two diploid (2n=10) ancestors (Arago et al., 1997).
Meioisis in this species has been reported as normal in accessions from India and Philippines (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973; Arago et al., 1997). Pollen fertility was found to be high (about 83%), likely due to the normal behavior of chromosomes during meioisis (Arago et al., 1997).
Autotetraploid plants (4n=40) can be obtained with colchicine treatment but, unlike diploids, these tetraploids exhibit a high frequency of meiotic irregularities (e.g. quadrivalents formation), and low pollen fertility and seed set. An experiment on inbreeding and selection for vigor and fertility in the tetraploids during four years and three generations did not produce significant results. Although there was a decrease in quadrivalent frequency by the third generation, this was not significant, suggesting that the response of these tetraploids to selection is very slow (Venkateswarlu and Chaganti, 1973; Venkateswarlu and Rao, 1976).
The largest germplasm collections of C. lacryma-jobi are in the Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (ICGR, CAAS) in Beijing and in the Institute of Plant Breeding of the University of Philippines at Los Baños (Jansen, 2006). Breeding programs in China are conducted in several institutes of Guizhou and Yunnan Provinces (Diao, 2017).
A genome assembly is available (Liu et al., 2020).
Reproductive Biology
Like most grasses, the flowers of C. lacryma-jobi are pollinated by the wind. Both self and cross pollination occur, with the latter being predominant (Schaaffhausen, 1952; Jansen, 2006).
Coix lacryma-jobi is disseminated mainly by ‘seeds’ that are actually the bead-like involucres containing the caryopsis. It can also propagate by cuttings (which is the preferred method for fodder production) and by rhizome fragmentation (Schaaffhausen, 1952). Seed propagation provides deeper rooting (Jansen, 2006).
When cultivated, the seeds are planted at the beginning of the rainy season. They are usually sown 2.5-5 cm deep (Schaaffhausen, 1952; Duke, 1983; Jansen, 2006), and germinate in about 1-2 weeks depending on the moisture content of the soil (Jansen, 2006). Schaaffhausen (1952) reports poor results when seeds are sown 15 cm deep.
Physiology and Phenology
Coix lacryma-jobi attains maturity and starts flowering at about 4 months after sowing, mainly during September-October (Arora, 1977). The grains are ripe and ready for harvesting in 4-7 months, depending on the cultivar (Jansen, 2006). When most of grains are ripe, the plants start to dry (Arora, 1977; Jansen, 2006). The whole grain can maintain its quality for long periods of time, but hulled grains deteriorate quickly if not stored in a dry place (Schaaffhausen, 1952).
Photoperiod experiments have shown that short periods of light (i.e. short days) reduce the vegetative growth and induce early flowering, but do not seem to influence the seed yield (Yao et al., 2013).
This species exhibits the C4 photosynthetic pathway (Jansen, 2006).
In China the flowering and fruiting season occurs from June to December (Flora of China, 2017). In Europe, it has been recorded flowering from July to October and fruiting from September to November (PFAF, 2017). In Australia, flowering usually commences in December, with fruit being produced until June (Technigro, 2010).
Longevity
Coix lacryma-jobi grows as an annual in subtropical and temperate regions, but behaves as a perennial in warmer climates where frost is absent or mild (Duke, 1983). When cultivated, the total crop duration is 4-6(-8) months (Jansen, 2006).
Population Size and Structure
Coix lacryma-jobi exhibits great variation in size, shape, color and hardness of the involucre. The greatest diversity of wild forms has been reported for Northeastern India and Myanmar, a region regarded as a possible center of origin of this crop (Arora, 1977). The soft-hulled forms suitable for food (var. ma-yuen) were presumably selected through cultivation over thousands of years (Jansen, 2006). Population genetic analysis found wild and cultivated accessions could be unambiguously separated, and a strong bottleneck during domestication led to a loss of half the genetic diversity present in the wild population (Liu et al., 2020)
An assessment of the genetic diversity using microsatellites revealed low genetic diversity within populations of this species from China and Korea. The accessions from China, however, exhibited greater within population polymorphism and showed to be genetically distinct from Korean accessions, suggesting that they originated from different gene pools (Ma et al., 2010). A different study using ISSR markers in wild and cultivated accessions from China also revealed low genetic diversity at the accession level and strong differentiation among all accessions (Xi et al., 2016).
Environmental Requirements
Coix lacryma-jobi requires abundant rainfall, usually exceeding 1500 mm per year (Skerman and Riveros, 1990), although it can tolerate 610 mm (Duke, 1983). It is found naturally in flooded or moist locations and is intolerant of drought. It grows best in open sunny places, on reasonably fertile soils with a pH in the range of 4.5 to 8.4 (Duke, 1983; Jansen, 2006).
In Asia, the cultivation of C. lacryma-jobi strongly depends on the monsoon rains (Arora, 1977), which are essential for the growth of seedlings and the formation of the seed. It has been reported that in the absence of enough moisture, the plants produce many hollow grains (Schaaffhausen, 1952).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
45 | 40 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 610 | 4290 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ceratovacuna lanigera | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Cladosporium herbarum | Pathogen | Plants | not specific | |||
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Epicoccum nigrum | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Eudarluca caricis | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Gibberella fujikuroi | Pathogen | Plants|Inflorescence; Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Gibberella gordonii | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Gibberella intricans | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Gibberella zeae | Pathogen | Fruits|pods; Plants|Inflorescence | not specific | |||
Meloidogyne incognita | Parasite | Plants|Roots | not specific | |||
Mycosphaerella tassiana | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
Ostrinia furnacalis | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Pelopidas mathias | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Rattus | Predator | Fruits|pods | not specific | |||
Sesamia inferens | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe most serious fungal diseases in C. lacryma-jobi are: Job’s tears smut (caused by Ustilago coicis), tar leaf spot (caused by Phyllachora coicis), rust (Puccinia operta), and Adlay leaf blight (caused by Bipolaris coicis) (Jansen, 2006; Ahmadpour et al., 2013). Job’s tears smut, which infects both the ovary of flowers and leaves, is very widespread and has been reported to cause severe damage to the crops in Thailand, India and China (Titatarn et al., 1983; Zhang et al., 2013).
Non-fungal pathogens include the Southern rice black-streaked dwarf virus (Pu et al., 2012), the maize chlorotic dwarf virus (Gingery, 1988), and the bacteria Xanthomonas albilineans (leaf scald of sugarcane) and Xanthonomas axonopodis pv. vasculorum (gumming disease of sugarcane) (Hayward, 1993). C. lacryma-jobi is also susceptible to a number of insect pests including the stem borers Ostrinia furnacalis (Asian corn borer) and Chilo suppressalis (Asiatic rice borer), the rice skipper (Pelopidas mathias), the anthurium thrips (Chaetanaphothrips orchidii), the corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis), and the sugarcane woolly aphid (Ceratovacuna lanigera) (Ahmadpour et al., 2013; Kalaisekar et al., 2017). As their names suggest, many of these pathogens and pests also attack major crops such as rice, maize, sugarcane and other grass crops.
The root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita has also been reported to affect this species (Duke, 1983). Rats, birds, and sometimes grasshoppers and termites may also cause considerable crop losses (Duke, 1983; Jansen, 2006). Schaaffhausen (1952) observed in Brazil that “if seeds are not harvested before birds discover them, almost nothing is left from a small plot”.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
The floating bead-like involucres containing the fruit are carried by water, particularly during floods. They are also likely dispersed by birds and mammals (Weed Watch, 2010).
Intentional Introduction
Coix lacryma-jobi has been intentionally introduced in many tropical and subtropical countries as a cereal crop, and as a forage, medicinal, and ornamental grass.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Cultivated in botanic gardens as a curiosity for its peculiar bead-like “fruits” | Yes | Yes | Lamarck (1792); Sweet (1827) |
Crop production | Planted as minor cereal. Introduced and cultivated in many countries as a food grain | Yes | Yes | Schaaffhausen (1952); PROTA (2017) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Escaped from cultivation and naturalized in many countries. Often naturalized in areas near villages and farms | Yes | Yes | Jansen (2006); PROTA (2017) |
Flooding and other natural disasters | Floating “fruits” can disperse during floods | Yes | Weed Watch (2010) | |
Forage | Introduced and cultivated in many countries as a forage and fodder crop for livestock and poultry | Yes | Yes | Schaaffhausen (1952); FAO (2017) |
Horticulture | Introduced and cultivated in many countries as a garden plant | Yes | Yes | De la Sagra (1850) |
Internet sales | Fruits are sold online | Yes | Yes | |
Medicinal use | Used in traditional medicine in Asia, often cultivated for medicinal purposes | Yes | Yes | Jain and Banerjee (1974); van den Bergh and Iamsupasit (1996) |
People foraging | Grains are eaten by humans and used as beads | Yes | Yes | van den Bergh and Iamsupasit (1996); USDA-ARS (2017) |
Seed trade | Fruits are sold online | Yes | Yes | van den Bergh and Iamsupasit (1996) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds | Yes | Yes | van den Bergh and Iamsupasit (1996) |
Floating vegetation and debris | Floating involucres are carried by water | Yes | Weed Watch (2010) | |
Fruits are sold online | Yes | Yes | ||
Water | Seeds dispersed by waterways | Yes | Yes | Technigro (2010) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
Coix lacryma-jobi can spread rapidly along waterways. It is capable of forming dense clumps and large colonies which may block the flow of watercourses and outcompete native plants including mesic and riparian vegetation and native aquatic plants (MacKee, 1994; Technigro, 2010; Weed Watch, 2010; I3N-Brasil, 2017; PIER, 2017).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Has high genetic variability
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of hydrology
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
The hard, glossy involucres of C. lacryma-jobi are commonly used as beads to make necklaces, bracelets, rosaries, curtains, musical shakers and many other decorative objects, which are sold in local markets and online craft stores.
The soft-shelled variety (ma-yuen) is cultivated as a food grain in several Asian countries both for animal and human consumption. The kernels can be cooked as rice or used for soups and broths. They can also be used to make alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, or can be pounded into a flour to make bread and baked goods. The whole grain and the flour are also used to feed chickens and pigs. The whole plant provides a very palatable fodder for cattle, buffaloes and horses (Schaaffhausen, 1952; Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Jansen, 2006).
Coix lacryma-jobi is a nutritious food, with a higher protein content than rice and maize. The hulled grains contains 11.6 g of water, 14.8 g of protein, 4.9 g of fat, 66.9 g of carbohydrate and 0.5 g of fiber per 100g edible portion. Minerals and vitamins include Ca (47 mg), P (254 mg), Fe (6 mg), thiamin (0.26 mg), riboflavin (0.19 mg) and niacin (4.7 mg) (Jansen, 2006).
An anticancer drug known as ‘Kanglaite’ has been developed from the seed oil. The drug is approved in China to treat several types of cancer, and is currently under study in the USA as a potential treatment for pancreatic and prostate cancer (Xi et al., 2016). The main bioactive component is coixenolide, a fatty acid ester that has been shown to possess anticancer activity (Ukita and Tanimura, 1961).
The largest producer of Coix seeds is China, with a cultivation area of approximately 73000 ha, 32000 of which are in the province of Guizhou (Diao, 2017). The grain is marketed as Chinese pearl barley, Coix seeds or adlay seeds.
Social Benefit
Coix lacryma-jobi has been cultivated for food, forage and medicinal purposes for thousands of years. It appears to have been an important crop in Southern and Eastern Asia before rice and maize became widespread (Jansen, 2006). At present, it is rather an accessory crop, but there is a growing demand due to its nutritional and medicinal qualities (Diao, 2017).
In Ayurveda, Unani and Sidha medicine, C. lacryma-jobi has been used to treat a broad range of ailments including headache, fever, inflammation, rheumatism, diabetes, dysentery, diarrhea, infections, intestinal worms and menstrual disorders. In the traditional Chinese medicine it is used to treat cancer, tumors, enteritis, edema, eczema and warts (Quattrocchi, 2012). The plant has been also used in veterinary medicine in India and Africa. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the macerated roots are used to control internal parasites in livestock (Chifundera, 1998).
The necklaces and accessories made with the involucres have long been used as ornaments, and in rituals and religious ceremonies (Jain and Banerjee, 1974; Jansen, 2006; Roder, 2006). The dry leaves have been used for thatching in India (Jain and Banerjee, 1974). The dried inflorescences are sometimes used in flower arrangements (Jansen, 2006).
Environmental Services
Coix lacryma-jobi is very efficient in removing inorganic nitrogen from polluted waters, which makes it a suitable plant for wastewater treatment in tropical regions (Jampeetong et al., 2013).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
Fuels
- Biofuels
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
- Ritual uses
- Sociocultural value
- Souvenirs
Human food and beverage
- Beverage base
- Cereal
- Emergency (famine) food
- Flour/starch
- Oil/fat
- Seeds
Materials
- Beads
- Lipids
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
- Veterinary
Ornamental
- Cut flower
- garden plant
- Potted plant
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageThe genus Coix is very distinctive and unlikely to be confused with other grasses. Coix lacryma-jobi can be distinguished from other species of Coix by its relatively wider leaves, and by the ovoid (or sometimes cylindrical), 8-15 mm involucres lacking an apical leaf blade. The other three species differ in the following characteristics:
Coix puellarum, which is sometimes treated as a variety of C. lacryma-jobi, has smaller (4-5 mm), globose involucres. It occurs in Northeastern India, Myanmar, China, Thailand and Vietnam (Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Coix aquatica has decumbent, sometimes floating stems that root at the basal nodes, and much narrower (up to 2.5 cm wide), long-acuminate leaves. It occurs in Sri Lanka, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Malaysia (Shouliang and Phillips, 2006).
Coix gasteenii, a species endemic to Australia, also has narrower (up to 2.3 cm) leaves, and the involucres bear a distinctive apical leaf blade 5-7 cm long (Simon, 1989).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
If identified early, young plants may be removed manually, although care should be taken to remove all of the root system. For mature specimens, stalks containing floral structures or fruits can be removed manually or mechanically. Mature fruits should be carefully collected and disposed of to prevent their dispersal (Weed Watch, 2010).
Chemical Control
Drizzle foliar application of glyphosate provided complete control (100% injury) in experimental trials in Hawaii (Motooka, 1999), however, because this species often grows in areas near watercourses, the use of herbicides is not recommended.
References
Top of pageAublet F, 1775. Histoire des plantes de la Guiane Françoise, Vol. 2, Paris, Chez Pierre-François Didot.976 pp.
Bentham G, 1878. Flora Australiensis, a description of the plants of the Australian territory, Vol. 7: Roxburghiaceae to Filices, London, UK: L. Reeve & Co.806 pp.
Bergh MH van den, Iamsupasit N, 1996. Coix lacryma-jobi L. In: Proseabase [ed. by Grubben GJH, Partohardjono S]. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation.http://www.proseanet.org
Chifundera K, 1998. Livestock diseases and the traditional medicine in the Bushi Area, Kivu Province, Democratic Repoblic of Congo. African Study Monographs, 19(1), 13-34.
Clayton WD, Renvoize SA, 1982. Gramineae. Flora of Tropical East Africa, Part 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands: A. A. Balkema.451-898.
Clayton WD, Renvoize SA, 1992. A classification system for the grasses. In: Grass evolution and domestication, [ed. by Chapman GP]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 328-354.
Clifford HT, Bostock PD, 2007. Etymological dictionary of grasses, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.318 pp.
De la Sagra R, 1850. Historia física, política y natural de la isla de Cuba. Segunda parte: Historia natural, Vol. 11: Botánica, Paris, France: Imprenta de Maulde y Renou.339 pp.
Duke JA, 1983. Coix lacryma-jobi L. In: Handbook of energy crops, Indiana, USA: Purdue University, Center for new crops & plants products. https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coix_lacryma-jobi.html
Durand T, Schinz H, 1895. Conspectus Florae Africae ou énumération des plantes d’Afrique, Vol. 5: Monocotyledonae et Gymnospermae, Brussels, Belgium: Imprimerie Charles Vande Weghe.977 pp.
FAO, 2017. Grassland Species Profiles. FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization.http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/Default.htm
Gingery RE, 1988. Maize chlorotic dwarf and related viruses. In: The plant viruses, Vol. 3: Polyhedral virions with monopartite RNA genomes, [ed. by Koenig R]. New York, USA: Plenum Press. 259-272.
Hayward AC, 1993. The hosts of Xanthomonas. In: Xanthomonas, [ed. by Swings JG, Civerolo EL]. London, United Kingdom: Chapman & Hall. 1-120.
Hernández F, 1943. Del Tozcuitlapilxochitl o flor de cola de papagayo. In: Historia de las plantas de Nueva España’ (1571-1576), Vol. 3, Libro 5, Mexico: Instituto de Biología de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Imprenta Universitaria. 735-737.
Husnot T, Coutance A, 1871. Enumération des glumacées récoltées aux Antilles Françaises, Caen, France: F. Le Blanc Hardel.35 pp.
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Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Grassland species profiles, FAO | http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/Default.htm | |
Handbook of energy crops, Purdue University | https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coix_lacryma-jobi.html | |
NAME PPlant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) | http://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Coix_lacryma-jobi_(PROSEA) | |
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) | http://www.hear.org/pier/species/coix_lacryma-jobi.htm | |
Plant resources of tropical Africa (PROTA4U) | http://www.prota4u.org/protav8.asp?en=1&p=Coix+lacryma-jobi+L. | |
US National Plant Germoplasm System | https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?11129 | |
Useful tropical plants | http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Coix+lacryma-jobi |
Contributors
Top of page24/04/17 Original text by:
Dr. Fabiola Areces-Berazain, Herbarium UPRRP, University of Puerto Rico - Río Piedras
Dr. Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany - Smithsonian NMNH
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