Conyza bonariensis (hairy fleabane)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. (1943)
Preferred Common Name
- hairy fleabane
Other Scientific Names
- Conyza ambigua DC.
- Conyza bonariensis var. leiotheca (S.F. Blake) Cuatrec.
- Conyza crispus (Pourr.) Rupr.
- Conyza linifolia (Willd.) Tackh.
- Erigeron bonariensis L. (1753)
- Erigeron crispus Pourr.
- Erigeron crispus subsp. naudinii (Bonnet) Bonnier
- Erigeron linifolius Willd. (1804)
- Leptilon bonariense (L.) Small
- Leptilon linifolium (Willd.) Small
International Common Names
- English: Argentine fleabane; fleabane
- Spanish: carnicera (Argentina); rama negra (Argentina); venadillo; yerba de la vida (Argentina); zamarraga
- French: erigéron de Bonard
- Portuguese: avoadinha-peluda; buva
Local Common Names
- Australia: flaxleaf fleabane
- Brazil: margaridinha-do-campo
- Germany: Krauser Katzenscweif; Krauses berufkraut
- Italy: ceppica campestre
- Japan: arechinogiku
- Netherlands: fijnstraal, vlasbladige
- New Zealand: wavy-leaf fleabane
- Norway: vlasbadige fiijnstraal
- USA: asthma weed; asthmaweed; hairy fleabane
EPPO code
- ERIBO (Erigeron bonariensis)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Conyza
- Species: Conyza bonariensis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageDistribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 21 Jul 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Stroud & Parker, 1979 | ||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Lesotho | Present | Introduced | |||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | |||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tunisia | Present | ||||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1932 | Invasive | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bahrain | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bhutan | Present, Localized | Native and Introduced | |||||
China | Present | Introduced | 1857 | ||||
-Hunan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Native | |||||
-Shanghai | Present | ||||||
-Shanxi | Present | ||||||
-Zhejiang | Present | ||||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | 1951 | ||||
India | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Iran | Present | Introduced | |||||
Israel | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Lebanon | Present | Introduced | |||||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | 1906 | As: Erigeron bonariensis | |||
Oman | Present | Introduced | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | 1906 | As: Erigeron bonariensis | |||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | 1982 | ||||
Turkey | Present | Introduced | |||||
United Arab Emirates | Present | Introduced | |||||
Yemen | Present | Introduced | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | 1822 | As: Erigeron bonariensis | |||
Bulgaria | Present | Introduced | 1976 | As: Erigeron bonariensis | |||
Croatia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cyprus | Present | ||||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
France | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Corsica | Present | Introduced | 1834 | ||||
Greece | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Sardinia | Present | ||||||
-Sicily | Present | ||||||
Malta | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Netherlands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Norway | Present | Introduced | 1879 | ||||
Poland | Present | Introduced | 1931 | ||||
Portugal | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Romania | Present | ||||||
Slovenia | Present | Introduced | 1940 | ||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | First reported: 1940's | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | 1843 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Morgado-Arroya & Urzua-Soria, 1995 | |||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-California | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Lord Howe Island | Present | Introduced | 1898 | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Kermadec Islands | Present | Introduced | 1888 | ||||
Tokelau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Native | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | Native | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Native | |||||
-Goias | Present | Native | |||||
-Maranhao | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | |||||
-Para | Present | Native | |||||
-Paraiba | Present | Native | |||||
-Parana | Present | Native | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Native | |||||
-Piaui | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Rondonia | Present | Native | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | |||||
-Sergipe | Present | Native | |||||
Chile | Present | Native | |||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Uruguay | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageRisk of Introduction
Top of pageHabitat
Top of pageHabitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Beta vulgaris (beetroot) | Chenopodiaceae | Other | |
Camellia | Theaceae | Main | |
Chrysanthemum (daisy) | Asteraceae | Unknown | |
Glycine max (soyabean) | Fabaceae | Other | |
Helianthus annuus (sunflower) | Asteraceae | Main | |
Hordeum vulgare (barley) | Poaceae | Other | |
Malus domestica (apple) | Rosaceae | Main | |
Mangifera indica (mango) | Anacardiaceae | Main | |
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive) | Oleaceae | Main | |
Phoenix dactylifera (date-palm) | Arecaceae | Main | |
Pyrus communis (European pear) | Rosaceae | Main | |
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Other | |
turfgrasses | Other | ||
Vitis (grape) | Vitaceae | Unknown | |
Vitis vinifera (grapevine) | Vitaceae | Main | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Other |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageC. bonariensis is a hexaploid, with a chromosome number (2n) of 54 (Thebaud and Abbott, 1995), the same as recorded for C. sumatrensis, with which it has been previously confused. The other common weedy species, C. canadensis, is by comparison, a diploid (2n=18). The role of ploidy in its evolution and spread is as yet unknown.
Reproductive Biology
C. bonariensis is mainly an annual plant, germinating in autumn and persisting as a rosette of leaves over winter before shooting and flowering in the following spring. However, it may often behave as a biennial in temperate climates. It rarely, if ever, persists for a second season after flowering (unlike C. sumatrensis). Seeds need a temperature of 10-25°C, and require light for germination (Zinzolker et al., 1985). Establishment occurs mainly in relatively undisturbed situations, and cultivation in annual crops apparently buries most of the seed and greatly reduces emergence. After establishment as a rosette, elongation of the stem is inhibited by short days but occurs rapidly under longer day conditions (Zinzolker et al., 1985). Seed production can be as great as 226,000 seeds per plant in the USA (Kempen and Graf, 1981), and seed dispersal by wind is made highly efficient by the pappus.
Environmental Requirements
Although occurring mainly in warm temperate climates, it has wide adaptation to hotter climates and can be found in many sub-tropical regions, and even tropical zones especially at higher altitudes. In Europe, it is found mainly in the Mediterranean region, though has recently been recorded further north. There is little evidence for preference regarding soil type. In Bhutan, it occurs at a wide range of altitudes, whereas C. floribunda is found mainly in lowlands, below 2000 m and C. canadensis tends to be restricted to higher altitudes, over 2000 m (Parker, 1992). C. bonariensis has been recorded at altitudes up to 3900 m in Bolivia (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2004).
Associations
A detailed study was undertaken by Prieur-Richard et al. (2002) of the invasion by C. bonariensis on Mediterranean annual plant communities. In agreement with earlier results suggesting that high nutrient availability can favour invasions, an abundant legume biomass in communities increased the final biomass and net fecundity of C. bonariensis, due to positive effects on soil nitrate concentration. Survival and establishment of C. bonariensis were mainly favoured by a high biomass of Asteraceae, and additional results from measurements of herbivory suggested that C. bonariensis survival was not related to abiotic conditions but may be due to protection against herbivores in plots with abundant Asteraceae. Establishment was on the other hand likely to be hindered by the effects of abundant grass and legume foliage on light quality, and therefore easier within an Asteraceae canopy. Prieur-Richard et al. (2002) concluded that invasion of Mediterranean old fields by species similar to C. bonariensis could be limited by favouring communities dominated by annual grasses.
Other studies looking at the invasion by C. bonariensis of fallows have observed that early high densities of the species are gradually replaced over several years by other plants, suggesting that C. bonariensis is a species of the early successional stage, having pioneering characteristics.
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- saline
- shallow
- sodic
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Septoria erigerontis | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageC. bonariensis is principally a wind-dispersed species, facilitated by light seed accompanied by a pappus which aids flight (e.g. Andersen, 1992).
Vector Transmission.
No information is available on the possibility of spread by animals, but if it occurs, it is likely to be only of minor significance in comparison to wind-dispersal.
Agricultural Practices
Mowing along roadsides, especially during seed production, is likely to increase spread. Also, late tillage or other practices at such inappropriate times will also facilitate seed dispersal.
Accidental Introduction
Seed of several Conyza species now widely present as weeds outside of their native ranges were probably introduced to most of their introduced ranges accidentally as contaminants in cotton, cereals or forage grains/seed. The first appearance of C. bonariensis around textile mills in Europe and elsewhere where exotic lead Sida (2003) to conclude that it may have been widely introduced from the New World as a contaminant of cotton.
Also a weed in nurseries, Conyza spp. may be spread as seed present in the soil in pots or other planting containers that accompany nursery stock, either as ornamentals or for establishing plantations. The spread of C. canadensis, along with numerous other weeds in central European forests, was thought to have been assisted by this method (see the datasheet on C. canadensis), and thus, presence in soil must be considered as a potential pathway.
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
True seeds (inc. grain) | weeds/seeds | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bark |
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
Fruits (inc. pods) |
Growing medium accompanying plants |
Leaves |
Roots |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | None |
Crop production | None |
Environment (generally) | None |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | None |
Livestock production | None |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageEnvironmental Impact
Top of pageThreatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Panicum fauriei (Carter's panicgrass) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2011) | |
Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a) | |
Schiedea apokremnos (Kauai schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010b) | |
Tetramolopium lepidotum (Waianae Range tetramolopium) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2009) |
Social Impact
Top of pageRisk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Highly mobile locally
- Has high reproductive potential
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - strangling
- Competition (unspecified)
- Pest and disease transmission
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural ControlC. bonariensis establishes from a small seed and the initial rosettes are readily destroyed by tillage. Once established, however, the plant becomes more difficult to control mechanically. Soil solarization is surprisingly ineffective (Silveira et al., 1988).
Chemical Control
C. bonariensis is normally susceptible to a wide range of the standard herbicides for control of broad-leaved weeds, including 2,4-D, dicamba, atrazine, simazine, paraquat and glyphosate. However, it has developed resistance to paraquat and to triazines, and sometimes shows dual resistance to both. The mechanisms of resistance have been much studied and it has been shown that the resistance to paraquat is associated with a single dominant gene. The level of resistance is about 30-fold in the early vegetative stage before bolting but rises to 200- to 300-fold at flowering. The higher level of resistance is associated with increased levels of superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase at the flowering stage but not at the earlier stage (Amsellem et al., 1993; Ye and Gressel, 1994). There is still a lack of agreement on the exact mechanism(s) of resistance (Preston, 1994). The resistance to paraquat automatically confers increased tolerance of atrazine and acifluorfen as well as to sulfur dioxide (Shaaltiel et al., 1988), but not to the related herbicide morfamquat and only partially to diquat (Vaughn et al., 1989). Full resistance to triazines depends on a separate mechanism, the same as that in other weeds (Prado et al., 1989).
References
Top of pageAdams CD, 1963. Compositae. In: Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Hepper FN, eds. Flora of West Tropical Africa, Volume 2, Second edition. London, UK: Crown Agents
Cronquist A, 1976. Conyza Less. In: Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA, eds. Flora Europaea, Volume 4, Plantaginaceae to Compositae (and Rubiaceae). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Edgecombe WS, 1970. Weeds of Lebanon. Beirut, Lebanon: American University of Beirut
Finot SVL, Urbina PA, Minoletti OML, Wilckens ER, Figueroa RM, Riquelme CM, 1996. Achene and seedling morphology of Asteraceae weed species from south-central Chile. Agro-Ciencia, 12(1):15-29
Gautam K, Rao PB, Chauhan SVS, 2003. Antifungal potency of some species of family Asteraceae (Compositae) against Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 33(2):294-295
Khalid S, 1995. Weeds of Pakistan. Compositae. Islamabad, Pakistan: Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
Kim HS, Ihm BS, Lee JS, Park SH, 2003. Ecological studies on the vegetation of abandoned salt field in Gasado. Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology, 17(2):123-132
Lanfranco E, 1976. Report on the present situation of the Maltese flora. Maltese Naturalist, 2:69-80
Lind EM, Tallantire AC, 1971. Some Flowering Plants of Uganda. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press
Michael PW, 1977. Some weedy species of Amaranthus (amaranths) and Conyza/Erigeron (fleabanes) naturalized in the Asian-Pacific region. Proceedings of the 6th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, Indonesia. Volume 1, 87-95
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2004. VAScular Tropicos database. Missouri Botanical Garden, Missouri, USA. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html
Morgado-Arroyo F, Urzua-Soria FOT, 1995. Incidencia de enfermedades foliares y maleza en trigo (Triticum sativum L.) y cebada (Hordeum vulgare L.) en dos sistemas de labranza en el estado de Hidalgo. [Incidence of leaf diseases and weeds in wheat (Triticum sativum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) under two tillage systems in the State of Hidalgo.] Revista Chapingo. Serie Proteccion Vegetal, 2(1):77-81
Morita H, 1997. Handbook of Arable Weeds of Japan. Tokyo, Japan: Kumiai Chemical Industry Co. Ltd., 128 pp
Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp
Perez M, Duarte G, 1991. Weed control in leys. Revista de los CREA, No. 146:58-64
Preston C, 1994. Resistance to photosystem 1 disrupting herbicides. In: Powles SB, Holtum JAM, eds. Herbicide Resistance in Plants: Biology and Biochemistry. Roca Baton, USA: Lewis Publications, 61-82
Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2004. Flora Europaea Database. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, UK. http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html
Sida O, 2003. Conyza triloba, new to Europe, and Conyza bonariensis, new to the Czech Republic. Preslia, 75(3):249-254
Silic C, Solic ME, 1999. Contribution to the knowledge of the neophytic flora in the Biokovo area (Dalmatia, Croatia). Natura Croatica, 8(2):109-116
USDA-ARS, 2004. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2004. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov
Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute
Xie FY, Yao LX, 1989. A study on Dorylus orientalis Westwood. Insect Knowledge, 26(5):291-293
Distribution References
Adams CD, 1963. Compositae. In: Flora of West Tropical Africa, 2 (Second) [ed. by Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Hepper FN]. London, UK: Crown Agents.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Cronquist A, 1976. Conyza Less. In: Flora Europaea, Plantaginaceae to Compositae (and Rubiaceae), 4 [ed. by Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Edgecombe W S, 1970. Weeds of Lebanon. Beirut, Lebanon: American University of Beirut. 457 pp.
Finot SVL, Urbina PA, Minoletti OML, Wilckens ER, Figueroa RM, Riquelme CM, 1996. Achene and seedling morphology of Asteraceae weed species from south-central Chile. In: Agro-Ciencia, 12 (1) 15-29.
Khalid S, 1995. Weeds of Pakistan. Compositae., Islamabad, Pakistan: Pakistan Agricultural Research Council.
Lanfranco E, 1976. Report on the present situation of the Maltese flora. Maltese Naturalist. 69-80.
Lind EM, Tallantire AC, 1971. Some Flowering Plants of Uganda., Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.
Michael PW, 1977. Some weedy species of Amaranthus (amaranths) and Conyza/Erigeron (fleabanes) naturalized in the Asian-Pacific region. [Proceedings of the 6th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, Indonesia], 1 87-95.
Morita H, 1997. Handbook of arable weeds in Japan. Toyokyo, Japan: Kumiai Chemical Industry.
Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan: National Plant Protection Centre. vi + 236 pp.
Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2003. Database of European Plants (ESFEDS)., Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Graden. http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html
USDA-ARS, 2004. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Xie F Y, Yao L X, 1989. A study on Dorylus orientalis Westwood. Insect Knowledge. 26 (5), 291-293.
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