Colletotrichum acutatum (black spot of strawberry)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Symptoms
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Biology and Ecology
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Plant Trade
- Impact
- Detection and Inspection
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Colletotrichum acutatum Simmonds ex Simmonds
Preferred Common Name
- black spot of strawberry
Other Scientific Names
- Colletotrichum xanthii Halsted
International Common Names
- English: crown rot (of anemone and celery); leaf curl of anemone; post-bloom fruit drop of citrus; terminal crook disease (of pine)
- Spanish: antracnosis del fresón; manchas negras del fresón
- French: anthracnose du fraisier; taches noires du fraisier
EPPO code
- COLLAC (Glomerella acutata)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Fungi
- Phylum: Ascomycota
- Subphylum: Pezizomycotina
- Class: Sordariomycetes
- Subclass: Sordariomycetidae
- Family: Glomerellaceae
- Genus: Colletotrichum
- Species: Colletotrichum acutatum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe classification of the genus Colletotrichum is currently very unsatisfactory, and several species occur on the principal economic host (strawberry) which are regularly confused. As well as C. acutatum, these include the Glomerella cingulata anamorphs C. fragariae and C. gloeosporioides, all of which can be distinguished by isoenzyme analysis (Bonde et al., 1991). Studies are continuing. Colletotrichum xanthii appears to be an earlier name for C. acutatum, but more research is necessary before it is adopted in plant pathology circles.
Description
Top of page
Colonies in culture are usually white, pale grey or pale orange, sometimes producing strong pinkish-purple pigments. Conidiomata are usually poorly developed, with few or no setae, especially in culture. Conidiogenous cells are roughly cylindrical, sometimes borne in weak clusters, and produce conidia successively from single loci. Conidia are 8-16 x 2.5-4 µm in size, fusiform, thin-walled, aseptate and hyaline. Appressoria are few in number, 6.5-11 x 4.5-7.5 µm in size, clavate to circular and light to dark brown.
Full descriptions are given by Dyko and Mordue (1979), Sutton (1980), Baxter et al. (1983) and Gunnell and Gubler (1992).
Distribution
Top of pageSome country records may refer instead to the Glomerella cingulata-Colletotrichum fragariae aggregate.
A record of C. acutatum in Chile (EPPO, 2009; CABI/EPPO, 2010) published in previous versions of the Compendium has been removed as the pathogen in the original source (Peredo et al., 1979) is now confirmed as a separate species, Colletotrichum pseudoacutatum (Damm et al., 2012). C. acutatum is a quarantine pest for Chile (Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero, 2013).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | ||||||
Egypt | Present | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | ||||||
Kenya | Present | ||||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
Nigeria | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present | ||||||
Tanzania | Present | ||||||
Tunisia | Present | ||||||
Uganda | Present | ||||||
Zimbabwe | Present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
China | Present | ||||||
-Chongqing | Present | ||||||
-Fujian | Present | ||||||
-Hainan | Present | ||||||
-Henan | Present | ||||||
-Hubei | Present | ||||||
-Hunan | Present | ||||||
-Jiangsu | Present | ||||||
-Liaoning | Present | ||||||
-Ningxia | Present | ||||||
-Shaanxi | Present | ||||||
-Shandong | Present | ||||||
-Yunnan | Present | ||||||
Hong Kong | Present | ||||||
India | Present | ||||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Assam | Present | ||||||
-Chhattisgarh | Present | ||||||
-Kerala | Present | ||||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
-Java | Present | ||||||
-Sumatra | Present | ||||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Israel | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
-Hokkaido | Present | ||||||
-Honshu | Present | ||||||
-Kyushu | Present | ||||||
-Shikoku | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | ||||||
-Sabah | Present | ||||||
-Sarawak | Present | ||||||
Nepal | Present | ||||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
South Korea | Present | ||||||
Sri Lanka | Present | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | ||||||
Thailand | Present | ||||||
Turkey | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | ||||||
Austria | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Belgium | Present | ||||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Present | ||||||
Bulgaria | Present, Localized | ||||||
Cyprus | Present | ||||||
Czechia | Present, Localized | ||||||
Denmark | Present | ||||||
Estonia | Absent, Confirmed absent by survey | ||||||
Finland | Present, Localized | ||||||
France | Present | ||||||
Germany | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Greece | Present | ||||||
Hungary | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Ireland | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
-Sicily | Present | ||||||
Latvia | Present | ||||||
Lithuania | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Malta | Present, Localized | ||||||
Montenegro | Present | ||||||
Netherlands | Present | ||||||
Norway | Present | Introduced | 1918 | ||||
Poland | Present | ||||||
Portugal | Present | ||||||
Russia | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
-Central Russia | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
-Southern Russia | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Slovenia | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Spain | Present, Localized | ||||||
Sweden | Present, Few occurrences | ||||||
Switzerland | Present | ||||||
United Kingdom | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Channel Islands | Present | ||||||
-England | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Northern Ireland | Present | ||||||
-Scotland | Absent, Intercepted only | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Belize | Present | ||||||
Canada | Present, Localized | ||||||
-British Columbia | Present | ||||||
-Manitoba | Present | ||||||
-New Brunswick | Present | ||||||
-Nova Scotia | Present | ||||||
-Ontario | Present | ||||||
-Quebec | Present | ||||||
Costa Rica | Present | ||||||
Dominica | Present | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | ||||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Present | ||||||
United States | Present | ||||||
-Alabama | Present | ||||||
-Arkansas | Present | ||||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Connecticut | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | ||||||
-Georgia | Present | ||||||
-Kentucky | Present | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present | ||||||
-Maryland | Present | ||||||
-Massachusetts | Present | ||||||
-Michigan | Present | ||||||
-Mississippi | Present | ||||||
-Missouri | Present | ||||||
-New Mexico | Present | ||||||
-New York | Present | ||||||
-North Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Ohio | Present | ||||||
-Oklahoma | Present | ||||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | ||||||
-Rhode Island | Present | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present | ||||||
-Tennessee | Present | ||||||
-Virginia | Present | ||||||
-Washington | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | ||||||
-New South Wales | Present | ||||||
-Queensland | Present | ||||||
-South Australia | Present | ||||||
-Tasmania | Present | ||||||
-Victoria | Present | ||||||
-Western Australia | Present | ||||||
Guam | Present | ||||||
New Zealand | Present | ||||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | ||||||
Vanuatu | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present, Localized | ||||||
Brazil | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Goias | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Chile | Absent, Invalid presence record(s) | ||||||
Colombia | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | ||||||
Guyana | Present | ||||||
Uruguay | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageC. acutatum has not been considered to be a quarantine pest by EPPO or any other regional plant protection organization. A certain ambiguity remains on its geographical distribution and impact on the strawberry crop, due to confusion with other Colletotrichum spp. In several countries of mainland Europe, the names C. fragariae or C. gloeosporioides have been used for all fungi causing anthracnose on strawberry. C. acutatum was only described on strawberry in the 1960s (Simmonds, 1966) and it is not clear whether its subsequent appearance as a strawberry pathogen in the literature is due to geographical spread of a pathogen which previously had a restricted distribution, to the rise in importance of a pathogen which was previously insignificant, or simply to the clarification of a taxonomic situation which was previously confused. As C. acutatum attacks several other crops without being a serious cause of concern, and indeed many other plant species, it does not appear logical to attempt to control it by international phytosanitary measures. In addition, identification in imported consignments presents difficulties because of the confusion with related species. Pathogen-free certification of strawberry planting material seems the best approach.
Phytosanitary Measures
The inclusion of C. acutatum (and other Colletotrichum spp.) among the species covered by a strawberry certification scheme would ensure that healthy planting material is traded nationally and internationally. A suitable scheme has been recommended by EPPO (OEPP/EPPO, 1994).
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of page
The species has a very wide host range, but is economically most important on strawberries.
C. acutatum can apparently affect almost any flowering plant, especially in warm temperate or tropical regions, although its host range needs further clarification. It has rarely been noted on other than agricultural or forestry land.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageSymptoms
Top of pageThe spread of the disease is often so rapid that by the time symptoms are noticed, the crop is in serious danger. For strawberry, fruit and occasionally petiole rots may be noticed, with sunken, water-soaked spots enlarging to cover the whole fruit within 2-3 days, with dark-brown fruit bodies producing pink spore masses. For other crops such as anemone and celery, crown rots and leaf curl may be the principal symptoms. In pine seedlings, the developing leaves around the apical bud are affected, with small, brown lesions appearing and rapidly extending. Severe stunting is eventually caused as the uninfected tissue beneath the apex continues to develop.
List of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
Fruit / lesions: scab or pitting | ||
Leaves / leaves rolled or folded | ||
Stems / rot | ||
Stems / stunting or rosetting |
Biology and Ecology
Top of page
The conidia germinate to form appressoria on plant surfaces, from which penetration hyphae develop into plant cells. Infection may occur through almost any plant surface, but for the particularly susceptible herbaceous species such as strawberry and anemone, the crown with its relatively humid microclimate is often favoured. In suitable conditions, the fungus can grow rapidly inside the plant and cause severe symptoms very quickly, but in other circumstances the fungus may be quiescent inside host tissues for a period, in some cases only becoming apparent after harvest. Once the fungus has developed sufficiently inside the plant, dark fruit-bodies are produced, causing typical anthracnose symptoms. Conidia are formed liberally, and are normally dispersed by watersplash (Yang et al., 1992). They may lie dormant in the soil for some time, often overwintering in this fashion. Survival is longest under relatively cool, dry conditions (Eastburn and Gubler, 1992). The fungus can also remain dangerous for long periods in dead plant material on the surface or buried in the soil.
Although the disease in strawberry crops tends to be more virulent in warm climates, where damage can be devastating, it frequently has its origins in cooler conditions where propagating material is grown (Opgenorth et al., 1989; Wilson et al., 1990; Sutton, 1992). The disease may possibly occur in all countries where strawberries are cultivated. However, it is reported to be absent from the premises of most major strawberry propagators in the UK, and it may be possible to exclude the fungus from these sites despite its presence elsewhere in the areas concerned. There is little information on the biology of C. acutatum other than for strawberry crops.
In some crops, notably mango (Liu et al., 1986) and tamarillo (Yearsley et al., 1988), C. acutatum causes postharvest diseases of fruits.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of page
Most natural transmission is probably by conidia, although appressoria, hyphal fragments and appressorium-like thick-walled cells may also play a part (Nair et al., 1983). Local dispersal seems to be at least mostly by water-splash (Yang et al., 1990), with propagules sometimes overwintering in soil to affect strawberry crops planted in subsequent years (Eastburn and Gubler, 1990).
Long-distance transmission due to human influence is probably widespread, and has contributed to the rapid spread of the fungus in recent years. The disease is frequently intercepted on strawberry material imported into the UK.
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bark | fungi/hyphae; fungi/spores | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | fungi/hyphae; fungi/spores | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Fruits (inc. pods) | fungi/hyphae; fungi/spores | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible |
Leaves | fungi/hyphae; fungi/spores | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Roots | fungi/hyphae | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible | |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | fungi/hyphae; fungi/spores | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Growing medium accompanying plants |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
Wood |
Impact
Top of page
The disease is significant worldwide on strawberry (on which it is considered the second most important pathogen after Botrytis cinerea), and also on a few other crops such as anemones. The disease on pine may not now be so severe as in recent years, judging from the decline in research papers. Little detailed information on economic losses is available. In France, the disease has caused up to 80% losses of unsprayed strawberry crops, especially of ever-bearing cultivars (Denoyes and Baudry, 1991). Crops sprayed for B. cinerea control have suffered much less. In the UK, where the disease is statutorily notifiable, presence forces the burning of crops and fumigation of the soil.
Recent studies in Australia showed that C. acutatum caused losses of 25-50% in celery crops in Queensland (Wright and Heaton, 1991).
Detection and Inspection
Top of pagePrevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
The only serious research on control has been in connection with strawberry crops. Some success was reported in New Zealand by spraying with dichlofluanid and a captan-benomyl mixture (Cheah and Soteros, 1984), with various chemicals in Australia (Washington et al., 1992), and in South Africa with captan (van Zyl, 1985). Recently in the USA, studies showed that no acceptable fungicide is effective (Milholland, 1989). Fungicide-resistant strains of related species have been reported in the USA and Japan (Chikuo and Kobayashi, 1991; McInnes et al., 1992). There have been considerable efforts in the USA to develop resistant strawberry cultivars, but limited success has been achieved due to the presence of varied races within the species (Delp and Milholland, 1981; Smith, 1985; Smith and Black, 1990; McInnes et al., 1992). Gupton and Smith (1991) have suggested some potentially useful directions for further research.
In the UK, the disease is rare owing to strict quarantine controls and a policy of destroying affected crops and fumigating soil. McInnes et al. (1992) found that nursery material derived from tissue culture which was free from the related species C. fragariae and planted in isolated fields remained healthy, suggesting that careful selection of disease-free stock and soil sterilization in affected beds might be at least as effective as attempting chemical control.
In celery crops, Wright and Heaton (1991) found both a variation in cultivar susceptibility and amenability to chemical control of the disease. For anemone, disease incidence decreased with storage of corms (Doornik and Booden, 1990), and treatment by soaking with hot water proved effective (Doornik, 1990). Yearsley et al. (1988) found that dipping of tamarillos in imazalil and prochloraz reduced the incidence of postharvest disease caused by C. acutatum. However, dipping strawberry plants in hot water or fungicides did not eliminate the disease.
For pine, regular applications of prochloraz have been found to be effective, as has dichlofluanid (Vanner, 1990).
References
Top of pageBonde MR, Peterson GC, Maas GL, 1991. Isozyme comparisons for identification of Colletotrichum spp. pathogenic to strawberry. Phytopathology, 81:1523-1528
Butin H, Peredo HL, 1986. Bibliotheca Mycologica, 101. Berlin, Stuttgart, Germany: J. Cramer, 100 pp
Chikuo Y, Kobayashi N, 1991. [A study of strawberry anthracnose. Perfect state of the pathogen which originated from the northern area of Kyushu Island and its benomyl resistance]. Proceedings of the Association for Plant Protection of Kyushu, 37:23-26
Cook RTA, 1993. Strawberry black spot caused by Colletotrichum acutatum. In: Plant health and the European single market. BCPC Monograph, No. 54 [ed. by Ebbels, D.]. Farnham, UK: BCPC, 301-304
Denoyes B, Baudry A, 1991. Characterization of species of Colletotrichum isolated from strawberry in France, taxonomy and pathogenicity abstract. Strawberry Diseases and Breeding for Varietal Resistance International Workshop, Bordeaux 1991
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Gupton CL, Smith BJ, 1991. Inheritance of resistance to Colletotrichum diseases in strawberry. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 116:724-727
OEPP/EPPO, 1994. Certification schemes No. 11. Pathogen-tested strawberry. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, 24:875-890
Opgenorth D, White J, Gunnell P, 1989. Strawberry anthracnose. California Plant Pest and Disease Report, 8:114-116
Smith BJ, 1985. PhD thesis, Louisiana State University. Baton Rouge, USA: Louisiana State University
Zyl HE van, 1985. Anthracnose on strawberries. Deciduous Fruit Grower, 35(11):404-406
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
NPPO of the Netherlands, 2013. Pest status of harmful organisms in the Netherlands., Wageningen, Netherlands:
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