Caladium bicolor
(heart of Jesus)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus); habit, showing leaves. 6 Route de Kaw, Roura, French Guyana. February 2018. Copyright ©Bernard DUPONT/via flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0	Habit	Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus); habit, showing leaves. 6 Route de Kaw, Roura, French Guyana. February 2018.	©Bernard DUPONT/via flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Title Habit Caption Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus); habit, showing leaves. Salem, Tamil Nadu, India. December 2014. Copyright ©Yercaud-elango/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0	Habit	Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus); habit, showing leaves. Salem, Tamil Nadu, India. December 2014.	©Yercaud-elango/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0
Title Leaves of varying colours Caption Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus); habit, showing leaves of varying colours. Home Depot Nursery Kahului, Maui, Hawaii, USA. June 2012. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Leaves of varying colours	Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus); habit, showing leaves of varying colours. Home Depot Nursery Kahului, Maui, Hawaii, USA. June 2012.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent

Preferred Common Name

• heart of Jesus

Other Scientific Names

• Alocasia roezlii N.E.Br.
• Arum bicolor Aiton
• Arum pulchrum Salisb.
• Arum vermitoxicum Vell
• Caladium albopunctatissimum Jacob-Makoy ex H.Karst.
• Caladium amoenum Engl.
• Caladium argyrospilum Lem.
• Caladium barraquinii Hérincq
• Caladium brongniartii Lem.
• Caladium chantinii Lem.
• Caladium concolor K.Koch
• Caladium connaertii Engl.
• Caladium curwadlii Engl.
• Caladium devosianum Lem.
• Caladium discolor Engl.
• Caladium duchartrei Engl.
• Caladium dussii Sieber & Voss
• Caladium eckhartii Lem. ex Engl.
• Caladium enkeanum K.Koch
• Caladium firmulum Schott
• Caladium gaerdtii K.Koch and Fint.
• Caladium griseoargenteum Engl.
• Caladium haageanum K.Koch
• Caladium medioradiatum L.Linden and Rodigas
• Caladium neumannii Lem.
• Caladium pallidum K.Koch and C.D.Bouché
• Caladium regale Lem.
• Caladium rubrovenium Engl.
• Caladium splendens K.Koch and Fint.
• Caladium steudneriifolium Engl.
• Caladium thelemannii Verschaff.
• Caladium vellozoanum Schott
• Cyrtospadix bicolor (Aiton) Britton and P.Wilson

International Common Names

• English: angel wings; angel-wings; artist's pallet; caladium
• Spanish: corazón de Jesús; corazón de Maria; malanga de jardín; malanguita
• French: palette de peintre
• Portuguese: tinhorão

Local Common Names

• Brazil: tinhorão
• Costa Rica: corazón de Jesús; corazón de María
• Cuba: corazón de cabrito; malanga; malanguilla; malanguita cimarrona; paleta de pintor; papagayo
• Dominican Republic: cananga; lágrimas de maría; paleta de pintor
• Haiti: coeur saignant
• India: artist's pallet; caladium; elephant's ear; fancy-leaf caladium
• Nigeria: spotted cocoyam
• Panama: corazon de Jesus; wild coco
• Puerto Rico: caladio; cara de caballo; paleta de pintor; venas de jesús; yautía de jardín
• USA: angel-wings; artist's pallet

Summary of Invasiveness

C. bicolor is a dormant geophyte herb extensively commercialized in the horticultural trade around the world (Deng, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2016). It is often cultivated as an ornamental and potted plant and naturalized populations of C. bicolor can be found in areas within and outside its native distribution range (Madison, 1981; Govaerts, 2016). Currently, C. bicolor is listed as invasive in Trinidad and Tobago, Guam, Micronesia, Palau, Hawaii and the Philippines, where it is considered a species that is altering native plant communities by displacing native species, and changing community structures and ecological functions (Space et al., 2003; Herrera et al., 2010; PIER, 2016; Trinidad Biodiversity, 2016).

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Arales
•                         Family: Araceae
•                             Genus: Caladium
•                                 Species: Caladium bicolor

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The family Araceae comprises 123 genera and about 4150 species distributed mostly in tropical areas in the New World, but also in Australia and Africa (Stevens, 2012). Araceae is a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants also known as the “aroid family”. The subfamily Aroideae includes 75 genera and 2305 species (Stevens, 2012).

The genus Caladium is native to the Neotropics (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005). The exact number of species in the genus Caladium is still a matter of discussion, varying from seven (Madison, 1981) to 17 species (Croat, 1994). The debate mainly centers on the classification of three species: Caladium bicolor, Caladium marmoratum, and Caladium picturatum. Madison (1981) merged these three species into one single species: C. bicolor (sensu Madison). However, this treatment is considered to be too broad by some taxonomists. Croat (1994) maintained the species status for each of these three species and considered that the genus was comprised of 17 species. More recently, Mayo et al. (1997) reclassified the genus into 12 species while the most recent version of The Plant List (2013) recognized 14 species. Other authors have proposed to refer to the cultivated caladiums as Caladium × hortulanum (Birdsey, 1951). It is generally believed that cultivated caladiums have resulted from hybridization among C. bicolor (sensu stricto), C. picturatum, and/or Caladium schomburgkii Schott (Birdsey, 1951; Wilfret, 1993; Deng, 2012).

Description

C. bicolor is a glabrous, erect acaulescent herb with a fleshy corm at base. Leaves 1-2; blades pointing downward, 30 × 20 cm, chartaceous, usually with small, irregular whitish or pinkish spots, or variegated along secondary veins, less often completely green, glaucous beneath, the apex acute or shortly acuminate, the base peltate, cordate, the margins more or less wavy; petioles erect, 35-55 cm long, sheathing, white at the very base, usually with purple stripes. Inflorescences axillary, ascending, solitary; peduncles as long as or little shorter than the petioles, cylindrical, green, usually with purple stripes; flowers unisexual; spathe chartaceous, glaucous, to 14 cm long, the blade twice as long as the tube, withering, elliptic, apiculate at apex; spadix shorter than the spathe, the staminate zone twice as long as the pistillate (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005).

Plant Type

Distribution

C. bicolor is native to Central and South America (Govaerts, 2016). It is widely cultivated and naturalized in tropical and subtropical areas of the world (Govaerts, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

According to Madison (1981), C. bicolor is native to South and Central America where it is widespread, being reported from Costa Rica and Panama, the Amazon basin of Suriname and throughout most of the Brazilian coast (Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In 1704, wild plants of C. bicolor collected in Suriname were sent to the Amsterdam Botanical Garden (DeFilipps et al., 2004). The type material used to describe the species originated from specimens introduced into England in 1737, from plants cultivated in Madeira (Madison, 1981).

In the West Indies, this species appears in herbarium collections made as early as 1879 in Martinique, 1885 in Puerto Rico, and 1892 in Guadeloupe (US National Herbarium). In Florida (USA), plants of C. bicolor have been cultivated and commercialized since 1905 (Sheehan, 1960). In Hawaii, C. bicolor was first collected in 1975 in cultivation and by 2008 it was reported as naturalized in Puna and South Hilo districts (Resslar, 2010).

The majority of the C. bicolor plants commercialized around the world are cultivars produced from hybridization between breeding lines. Caladium breeding was pioneered in France in the mid-1800s and later in the United States in 1970s (Wilfret, 1993; Deng, 2012). At present, about 1500 cultivars of this decorative species have been developed and are cultivated around the world (DeFilipps et al., 2004).

Risk of Introduction

C. bicolor is a fast-growing herb widely planted as an ornamental in tropical and subtropical regions (USDA-ARS, 2016). Even when it has been demonstrated that this species has the potential to escape from cultivation and become naturalized into natural habitats, it is still sold in the horticulture trade around the world. Thus, the probability of new introductions of this species remains high.

Habitat

In the West Indies, C. bicolor is cultivated as an ornamental and can be found naturalized in open disturbed, moist areas, common along rivers and swampy areas (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005). In Nigeria and Cameroon, it can be found in riverine forests, forest edges and in cassava gardens (PROTA, 2016). In Hawaii, C. bicolor has been found growing only in areas where deep, argillaceous soil occurs (Resslar, 2010).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number reported for C. bicolor is 2n = 30 (Roy et al., 1994). Ploidy level barriers do not exist among cultivars, as they all are diploids with 2n = 2x = 30 (Deng, 2012).

Reproductive Biology

The inflorescences of C. bicolor are adapted to the pollination syndrome performed by Cyclocephalini beetles, a syndrome associated with intense floral heat production and emission of attractive volatiles (Gottsberger, 1990; Bernhardt, 2000; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In this species, the inflorescences show floral thermogenesis, odour emission, and also offer nutritious rewards for visitors (i.e., starch-rich tissues, pollen, and exudates) (Gottsberger, 1990; Bernhardt, 2000). The heated floral chambers are also used as shelters and mating sites for the beetles (Seymour et al., 2003; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006).

Physiology and Phenology

C. bicolor is a perennial, dormant geophyte herb, with populations commonly found as scattered patches in disturbed forest areas, along fragment borders, and in forest clearings (Madison, 1981; Croat, 1994; Mayo et al., 1997; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In Brazil, the flowering period of C. bicolor lasts for about 65 days, from March to the end of May (Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In Central America, it has been recorded flowering from May to July and fruiting in October (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016).

Environmental Requirements

C. bicolor grows on soils with pH ranging from 5.6 to 6.5. It prefers open disturbed sites in moist habitats along rivers and swamps (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005).

Climate

Air Temperature

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free
• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

Fusarium tuber rot (Fusarium solani) and the root rot Pythium myriotylum are the most important diseases impacting C. bicolor in cultivation. Plant-parasitic nematodes in the genus Meloidogyne also infect roots and tubers of C. bicolor (Deng, 2012).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

C. bicolor spreads by seed and vegetatively by rhizomes and tubers. In cultivation it is propagated by division of the tubers (Madison, 1981; Deng, 2012).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

C. bicolor is host of Spodoptera littoralis, one of the most destructive agricultural lepidopterous pests within its subtropical and tropical range (EPPO, 1997).

Environmental Impact

C. bicolor is a fast-growing herb with the capability to escape from cultivation and become naturalized in the wild. Once naturalized, it grows forming “scattered patches” which alter native plant communities by displacing native species, changing community structures and ecological functions (Space et al., 2003; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006; Herrera et al., 2010; PIER, 2016; Trinidad Biodiversity, 2016).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Tolerant of shade
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Pest and disease transmission
• Hybridization
• Rapid growth
• Rooting

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Economic Value

C. bicolor is extensively commercialized and cultivated as a foliage ornamental and potted plant (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005; USDA-ARS, 2016). More than 1500 cultivars of this decorative plant species have been developed and are cultivated around the world (DeFilipps et al., 2004; Deng, 2012). Extracts from leaves and stems of C. bicolor have moderate antibacterial and antifungal activities and a recent study show that these extracts can be used as raw material for pharmaceutical preparations to treat infections (Azuwike et al., 2016).

Social Benefit

In South America, C. bicolor is used in traditional medicine to treat different illnesses. The powdered tuber is used to treat facial skin blemishes. All parts of the leaf are macerated in fresh water for an external bath to remedy numerous skin illnesses. Crushed leaves are used in veterinary medicine to destroy vermin on sores of cattle (DeFilipps et al., 2004).

Uses List

Environmental

• Amenity

General

• Botanical garden/zoo

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Potted plant

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

There is no information available for the control or management of C. bicolor. Herbicides such as glyphosate, triclopyr and fluroxypyr have been used to control invasions of other aroid species.

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2005. Monocots and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52:415 pp.

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Azuwike CO, Ihejirika CE, Ajuruchi VMC, Ononiwu EZ, 2016. Antibacterial and antifungal potential of extracts of Caladium bicolor., TLEP International Journal, 1:24-28

Bernhardt P, 2000. Convergent evolution and adaptive radiation of beetle-pollinated angiosperms., Plant Systematics and Evolution, 222:293–320

Birdsey MR, 1951. The Cultivated Aroids. Berkeley, CA, USA: Gillick Press.

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation

Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf

Coelho MAN, Soares ML, Calazans LSB, Gonçalves EG, Andrade IM, Mayo S, 2015. Araceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro , Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB4994

Cooper B, Mings L, Lindsay K, Bacle JP, 2011. Environmental and Socioeconomic Baseline Studies. St. Kitts and Nevis Site Report.

Croat T, 1994. Taxonomic status of neotropical Araceae., Aroideana, 17:33-60

DeFilipps RA, Maina SL, Crepin J, 2004. Medicinal Plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Washington, DC: Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/medicinal

Deng Z, 2012. Caladium genetics and breeding: recent advances., Floriculture and Ornamental Biotechnology, 6:53-61

EPPO, 1997. Spodoptera littoralis and Spodoptera litura. In: Smith IM, McNamara DG, Scott PR, Holderness M, eds. Quarantine pests for Europe. 2nd edition. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, pp 518-525

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, Oliver R, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae., Micronesica, 20:1-126

Funk VA, Berry PE, Alexander S, Hollowell TH, Kelloff CL, 2007. Checklist of the Plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana)., Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 55(1-584)

Gottsberger G, 1990. Flowers and beetles in the South American tropics., Acta Botanica, 103:360–365

Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Araceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Hancock IR, Henderson CP, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin - Dodo Creek Research Station, No. 7. Honiara, Solomon Islands ii + 203 pp.

Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawaii, 146 pp.

Imada CT, Staples GW, Herbst DR, 2013. Annotated Checklist of Cultivated Plants of Hawaii. http://nsdb.bishopmuseum.org/

India Biodiversity Portal, 2016. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.). Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. 164 pp.

Madison MT, 1981. Notes on Caladium (Araceae) and its allies., Selbyana, 5:342-377

Maia ACD, Schlindwein C, 2006. Caladium bicolor (Araceae) and Cyclocephala celata (Coleoptera, Dynastinae): a well-established pollination system in the northern Atlantic rainforest of Pernambuco, Brazil., Plant Biology, 8:529-534

Mayo SJ, Bogner J, Boyce PC, 1997. The genera of Araceae. Kew, Richmond, UK: The Trustees, Royal Botanic Gardens.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm

PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp

Resslar PM, 2010. Caladium bicolor naturalized on the island of Hawaii. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2008. In: Evenhuis NL, Eldredge LG, eds. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 107: 44–45

Roy SC, Sarkar DD, Datta KB, 1994. Chromosomal and biochemical of intraspecific diversification in Caladium bicolor (Ait.) Vent. (Araceae)., Proceedings of the Indian Science Congress Association, 81:1-116

Seymour RS, White CR, Gibernau M, 2003. Heat reward for insect pollinators., Nature, 426:243–244

Sheehan TJ, 1960. Caladium production in Florida. Inst. Food Agr. Sci., University of Florida, Agricultural Extension Service Circular 128A. 7 pp.

Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Reports to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Contribution No. 2003-006 to the Pacific Biological Survey. USDA Forest Service and the Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 103 pp.

Space JC, Waterhouse B, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, 174 pp.

Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Newfield M, Bull C, 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.

Starr F, Starr K, Loope L, 2008. Botanical survey of Midway Atoll. Prepared for: United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 27 pp. plus appendices. http://www.hear.org/starr/publications/2008_botanical_survey_of_midway_atoll_draft.pdf

Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical Paper - South Pacific Commission, No. 209: 124 pp.

Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392: 1-223. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00392.pdf

The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org

Trinidad Biodiversity, 2016. Lists of Invasive species in Trinidad and Tobago. http://www.biodiversity.gov.tt/home/trinidad-a-tobago-biodiversity/invasive-alien-species.html

USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl

USDA-NRCS, 2016. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/

Wilfret GJ, 1993. Caladium. In: Hertogh A de, LeNard M, eds. The Physiology of Flower Bulbs. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. pp 239-247

Wu T, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised), 384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php

Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Azuwike CO, Ihejirika CE, Ajuruchi VMC, Ononiwu EZ, 2016. Antibacterial and antifungal potential of extracts of Caladium bicolor. In: TLEP International Journal, 1 24-28.

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.htm

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos., Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation.

Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf

Coelho MAN, Soares ML, Calazans LSB, Gonçalves EG, Andrade IM, Mayo S, 2015. (Araceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB4994

Cooper B, Mings L, Lindsay K, Bacle JP, 2011. Environmental and Socioeconomic Baseline Studies. In: St. Kitts and Nevis Site Report,

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, Oliver RL, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. In: Micronesica, 20 1-126.

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander S N, 2007. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 55, 584 pp.

Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Araceae., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Hancock I R, Henderson C P, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. In: Research Bulletin - Dodo Creek Research Station, Honiara, Solomon Islands: ii + 203 pp.

Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. In: Allertonia, Lawai, Hawaii, National Tropical Botanical Garden. 146 pp.

Imada CT, Staples GW, Herbst DR, 2013. Annotated Checklist of Cultivated Plants of Hawaii., http://nsdb.bishopmuseum.org/

India Biodiversity Portal, 2016. Online Portal of India Biodiversity., http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie)., Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. 164 pp.

PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm

PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database., Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp

Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Reports to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. In: Contribution No. 2003-006 to the Pacific Biological Survey, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and the Bishop Museum. 103 pp.

Space JC, Waterhouse B, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service. 174 pp.

Starr F, Starr K, Loope L, 2008. Botanical survey of Midway Atoll. In: Prepared for: United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 27 pp. http://www.hear.org/starr/publications/2008_botanical_survey_of_midway_atoll_draft.pdf

Swarbrick J T, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. In: Technical Paper - South Pacific Commission, Nouméa, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission (Commission du Pacifique Sud). viii + 124 pp.

Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 Washington, Smithsonian Institution. 1-223. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00392.pdf

USDA-NRCS, 2016. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Wu T, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised)., 384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php

Links to Websites

Contributors

06/09/16 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps