Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Caladium bicolor (Aiton) Vent
Preferred Common Name
- heart of Jesus
Other Scientific Names
- Alocasia roezlii N.E.Br.
- Arum bicolor Aiton
- Arum pulchrum Salisb.
- Arum vermitoxicum Vell
- Caladium albopunctatissimum Jacob-Makoy ex H.Karst.
- Caladium amoenum Engl.
- Caladium argyrospilum Lem.
- Caladium barraquinii Hérincq
- Caladium brongniartii Lem.
- Caladium chantinii Lem.
- Caladium concolor K.Koch
- Caladium connaertii Engl.
- Caladium curwadlii Engl.
- Caladium devosianum Lem.
- Caladium discolor Engl.
- Caladium duchartrei Engl.
- Caladium dussii Sieber & Voss
- Caladium eckhartii Lem. ex Engl.
- Caladium enkeanum K.Koch
- Caladium firmulum Schott
- Caladium gaerdtii K.Koch and Fint.
- Caladium griseoargenteum Engl.
- Caladium haageanum K.Koch
- Caladium medioradiatum L.Linden and Rodigas
- Caladium neumannii Lem.
- Caladium pallidum K.Koch and C.D.Bouché
- Caladium regale Lem.
- Caladium rubrovenium Engl.
- Caladium splendens K.Koch and Fint.
- Caladium steudneriifolium Engl.
- Caladium thelemannii Verschaff.
- Caladium vellozoanum Schott
- Cyrtospadix bicolor (Aiton) Britton and P.Wilson
International Common Names
- English: angel wings; angel-wings; artist's pallet; caladium
- Spanish: corazón de Jesús; corazón de Maria; malanga de jardín; malanguita
- French: palette de peintre
- Portuguese: tinhorão
Local Common Names
- Brazil: tinhorão
- Costa Rica: corazón de Jesús; corazón de María
- Cuba: corazón de cabrito; malanga; malanguilla; malanguita cimarrona; paleta de pintor; papagayo
- Dominican Republic: cananga; lágrimas de maría; paleta de pintor
- Haiti: coeur saignant
- India: artist's pallet; caladium; elephant's ear; fancy-leaf caladium
- Nigeria: spotted cocoyam
- Panama: corazon de Jesus; wild coco
- Puerto Rico: caladio; cara de caballo; paleta de pintor; venas de jesús; yautía de jardín
- USA: angel-wings; artist's pallet
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageC. bicolor is a dormant geophyte herb extensively commercialized in the horticultural trade around the world (Deng, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2016). It is often cultivated as an ornamental and potted plant and naturalized populations of C. bicolor can be found in areas within and outside its native distribution range (Madison, 1981; Govaerts, 2016). Currently, C. bicolor is listed as invasive in Trinidad and Tobago, Guam, Micronesia, Palau, Hawaii and the Philippines, where it is considered a species that is altering native plant communities by displacing native species, and changing community structures and ecological functions (Space et al., 2003; Herrera et al., 2010; PIER, 2016; Trinidad Biodiversity, 2016).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Arales
- Family: Araceae
- Genus: Caladium
- Species: Caladium bicolor
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Araceae comprises 123 genera and about 4150 species distributed mostly in tropical areas in the New World, but also in Australia and Africa (Stevens, 2012). Araceae is a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants also known as the “aroid family”. The subfamily Aroideae includes 75 genera and 2305 species (Stevens, 2012).
The genus Caladium is native to the Neotropics (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005). The exact number of species in the genus Caladium is still a matter of discussion, varying from seven (Madison, 1981) to 17 species (Croat, 1994). The debate mainly centers on the classification of three species: Caladium bicolor, Caladium marmoratum, and Caladium picturatum. Madison (1981) merged these three species into one single species: C. bicolor (sensu Madison). However, this treatment is considered to be too broad by some taxonomists. Croat (1994) maintained the species status for each of these three species and considered that the genus was comprised of 17 species. More recently, Mayo et al. (1997) reclassified the genus into 12 species while the most recent version of The Plant List (2013) recognized 14 species. Other authors have proposed to refer to the cultivated caladiums as Caladium × hortulanum (Birdsey, 1951). It is generally believed that cultivated caladiums have resulted from hybridization among C. bicolor (sensu stricto), C. picturatum, and/or Caladium schomburgkii Schott (Birdsey, 1951; Wilfret, 1993; Deng, 2012).
Description
Top of pageC. bicolor is a glabrous, erect acaulescent herb with a fleshy corm at base. Leaves 1-2; blades pointing downward, 30 × 20 cm, chartaceous, usually with small, irregular whitish or pinkish spots, or variegated along secondary veins, less often completely green, glaucous beneath, the apex acute or shortly acuminate, the base peltate, cordate, the margins more or less wavy; petioles erect, 35-55 cm long, sheathing, white at the very base, usually with purple stripes. Inflorescences axillary, ascending, solitary; peduncles as long as or little shorter than the petioles, cylindrical, green, usually with purple stripes; flowers unisexual; spathe chartaceous, glaucous, to 14 cm long, the blade twice as long as the tube, withering, elliptic, apiculate at apex; spadix shorter than the spathe, the staminate zone twice as long as the pistillate (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005).
Distribution
Top of pageC. bicolor is native to Central and South America (Govaerts, 2016). It is widely cultivated and naturalized in tropical and subtropical areas of the world (Govaerts, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | |||||
Burkina Faso | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Central African Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
Togo | Present | Introduced | |||||
Antarctica |
|||||||
Heard Island and McDonald Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1994 | ||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | Present | Introduced | Diego Garcia Is. | ||||
China | Present, Localized | Introduced | Cultivated in Hong Kong | ||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Delhi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Kerala | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Virgin Gorda | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Trinidad Biodiversity (2016) | |||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | St Croix | ||||
United States | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated. Chuuk, Kosrae and Yap. | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Space et al. (2004) | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Hancock and Henderson, 1988 | ||||
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated on Sand Island | ||||
-Wake Island | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present | Native | |||||
-Acre | Present | Native | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Native | |||||
-Amapa | Present | Native | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | Native | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Native | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | |||||
-Para | Present | Native | |||||
-Parana | Present | Native | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | |||||
-Rondonia | Present | Native | |||||
-Roraima | Present | Native | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | |||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | |||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageAccording to Madison (1981), C. bicolor is native to South and Central America where it is widespread, being reported from Costa Rica and Panama, the Amazon basin of Suriname and throughout most of the Brazilian coast (Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In 1704, wild plants of C. bicolor collected in Suriname were sent to the Amsterdam Botanical Garden (DeFilipps et al., 2004). The type material used to describe the species originated from specimens introduced into England in 1737, from plants cultivated in Madeira (Madison, 1981).
In the West Indies, this species appears in herbarium collections made as early as 1879 in Martinique, 1885 in Puerto Rico, and 1892 in Guadeloupe (US National Herbarium). In Florida (USA), plants of C. bicolor have been cultivated and commercialized since 1905 (Sheehan, 1960). In Hawaii, C. bicolor was first collected in 1975 in cultivation and by 2008 it was reported as naturalized in Puna and South Hilo districts (Resslar, 2010).
The majority of the C. bicolor plants commercialized around the world are cultivars produced from hybridization between breeding lines. Caladium breeding was pioneered in France in the mid-1800s and later in the United States in 1970s (Wilfret, 1993; Deng, 2012). At present, about 1500 cultivars of this decorative species have been developed and are cultivated around the world (DeFilipps et al., 2004).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageC. bicolor is a fast-growing herb widely planted as an ornamental in tropical and subtropical regions (USDA-ARS, 2016). Even when it has been demonstrated that this species has the potential to escape from cultivation and become naturalized into natural habitats, it is still sold in the horticulture trade around the world. Thus, the probability of new introductions of this species remains high.
Habitat
Top of pageIn the West Indies, C. bicolor is cultivated as an ornamental and can be found naturalized in open disturbed, moist areas, common along rivers and swampy areas (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005). In Nigeria and Cameroon, it can be found in riverine forests, forest edges and in cassava gardens (PROTA, 2016). In Hawaii, C. bicolor has been found growing only in areas where deep, argillaceous soil occurs (Resslar, 2010).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for C. bicolor is 2n = 30 (Roy et al., 1994). Ploidy level barriers do not exist among cultivars, as they all are diploids with 2n = 2x = 30 (Deng, 2012).
Reproductive Biology
The inflorescences of C. bicolor are adapted to the pollination syndrome performed by Cyclocephalini beetles, a syndrome associated with intense floral heat production and emission of attractive volatiles (Gottsberger, 1990; Bernhardt, 2000; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In this species, the inflorescences show floral thermogenesis, odour emission, and also offer nutritious rewards for visitors (i.e., starch-rich tissues, pollen, and exudates) (Gottsberger, 1990; Bernhardt, 2000). The heated floral chambers are also used as shelters and mating sites for the beetles (Seymour et al., 2003; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006).
Physiology and Phenology
C. bicolor is a perennial, dormant geophyte herb, with populations commonly found as scattered patches in disturbed forest areas, along fragment borders, and in forest clearings (Madison, 1981; Croat, 1994; Mayo et al., 1997; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In Brazil, the flowering period of C. bicolor lasts for about 65 days, from March to the end of May (Maia and Schlindwein, 2006). In Central America, it has been recorded flowering from May to July and fruiting in October (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016).
Environmental Requirements
C. bicolor grows on soils with pH ranging from 5.6 to 6.5. It prefers open disturbed sites in moist habitats along rivers and swamps (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 5 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 12 | 28 |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dasheen mosaic virus | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Fusarium solani | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Meloidogyne incognita | Parasite | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Pythium myriotylum | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageFusarium tuber rot (Fusarium solani) and the root rot Pythium myriotylum are the most important diseases impacting C. bicolor in cultivation. Plant-parasitic nematodes in the genus Meloidogyne also infect roots and tubers of C. bicolor (Deng, 2012).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageC. bicolor spreads by seed and vegetatively by rhizomes and tubers. In cultivation it is propagated by division of the tubers (Madison, 1981; Deng, 2012).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Yes | Yes | Deng (2012) | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Seed and rhizomes | Yes | Yes | PIER (2016) |
Horticulture | Very valuable in the horticulture trade for its colorful and variably-shaped leaves | Yes | Yes | Deng (2012) |
Medicinal use | Used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | DeFilipps et al. (2004) |
Nursery trade | Widely commercialized in the horticulture trade | Yes | Yes | Deng (2012) |
Ornamental purposes | Very valuable in the horticulture trade for its colorful and variably-shaped leaves | Yes | Yes | Deng (2012) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seed and rhizomes escaped from gardens | Yes | Yes | PIER (2016) |
Adult plants, seedlings, tubers and seeds are sold online | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive and negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageC. bicolor is host of Spodoptera littoralis, one of the most destructive agricultural lepidopterous pests within its subtropical and tropical range (EPPO, 1997).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageC. bicolor is a fast-growing herb with the capability to escape from cultivation and become naturalized in the wild. Once naturalized, it grows forming “scattered patches” which alter native plant communities by displacing native species, changing community structures and ecological functions (Space et al., 2003; Maia and Schlindwein, 2006; Herrera et al., 2010; PIER, 2016; Trinidad Biodiversity, 2016).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Tolerant of shade
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Pest and disease transmission
- Hybridization
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
C. bicolor is extensively commercialized and cultivated as a foliage ornamental and potted plant (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005; USDA-ARS, 2016). More than 1500 cultivars of this decorative plant species have been developed and are cultivated around the world (DeFilipps et al., 2004; Deng, 2012). Extracts from leaves and stems of C. bicolor have moderate antibacterial and antifungal activities and a recent study show that these extracts can be used as raw material for pharmaceutical preparations to treat infections (Azuwike et al., 2016).
Social Benefit
In South America, C. bicolor is used in traditional medicine to treat different illnesses. The powdered tuber is used to treat facial skin blemishes. All parts of the leaf are macerated in fresh water for an external bath to remedy numerous skin illnesses. Crushed leaves are used in veterinary medicine to destroy vermin on sores of cattle (DeFilipps et al., 2004).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Potted plant
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
There is no information available for the control or management of C. bicolor. Herbicides such as glyphosate, triclopyr and fluroxypyr have been used to control invasions of other aroid species.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2005. Monocots and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, volume 52:415 pp.
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Azuwike CO, Ihejirika CE, Ajuruchi VMC, Ononiwu EZ, 2016. Antibacterial and antifungal potential of extracts of Caladium bicolor., TLEP International Journal, 1:24-28
Bernhardt P, 2000. Convergent evolution and adaptive radiation of beetle-pollinated angiosperms., Plant Systematics and Evolution, 222:293–320
Birdsey MR, 1951. The Cultivated Aroids. Berkeley, CA, USA: Gillick Press.
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Coelho MAN, Soares ML, Calazans LSB, Gonçalves EG, Andrade IM, Mayo S, 2015. Araceae in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro , Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB4994
Cooper B, Mings L, Lindsay K, Bacle JP, 2011. Environmental and Socioeconomic Baseline Studies. St. Kitts and Nevis Site Report.
Croat T, 1994. Taxonomic status of neotropical Araceae., Aroideana, 17:33-60
DeFilipps RA, Maina SL, Crepin J, 2004. Medicinal Plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Washington, DC: Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/medicinal
Deng Z, 2012. Caladium genetics and breeding: recent advances., Floriculture and Ornamental Biotechnology, 6:53-61
EPPO, 1997. Spodoptera littoralis and Spodoptera litura. In: Smith IM, McNamara DG, Scott PR, Holderness M, eds. Quarantine pests for Europe. 2nd edition. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, pp 518-525
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
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Funk VA, Berry PE, Alexander S, Hollowell TH, Kelloff CL, 2007. Checklist of the Plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana)., Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 55(1-584)
Gottsberger G, 1990. Flowers and beetles in the South American tropics., Acta Botanica, 103:360–365
Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Araceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Hancock IR, Henderson CP, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin - Dodo Creek Research Station, No. 7. Honiara, Solomon Islands ii + 203 pp.
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Hawaii, 146 pp.
Imada CT, Staples GW, Herbst DR, 2013. Annotated Checklist of Cultivated Plants of Hawaii. http://nsdb.bishopmuseum.org/
India Biodiversity Portal, 2016. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list
MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.). Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. 164 pp.
Madison MT, 1981. Notes on Caladium (Araceae) and its allies., Selbyana, 5:342-377
Maia ACD, Schlindwein C, 2006. Caladium bicolor (Araceae) and Cyclocephala celata (Coleoptera, Dynastinae): a well-established pollination system in the northern Atlantic rainforest of Pernambuco, Brazil., Plant Biology, 8:529-534
Mayo SJ, Bogner J, Boyce PC, 1997. The genera of Araceae. Kew, Richmond, UK: The Trustees, Royal Botanic Gardens.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Resslar PM, 2010. Caladium bicolor naturalized on the island of Hawaii. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2008. In: Evenhuis NL, Eldredge LG, eds. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 107: 44–45
Roy SC, Sarkar DD, Datta KB, 1994. Chromosomal and biochemical of intraspecific diversification in Caladium bicolor (Ait.) Vent. (Araceae)., Proceedings of the Indian Science Congress Association, 81:1-116
Seymour RS, White CR, Gibernau M, 2003. Heat reward for insect pollinators., Nature, 426:243–244
Sheehan TJ, 1960. Caladium production in Florida. Inst. Food Agr. Sci., University of Florida, Agricultural Extension Service Circular 128A. 7 pp.
Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Reports to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Contribution No. 2003-006 to the Pacific Biological Survey. USDA Forest Service and the Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 103 pp.
Space JC, Waterhouse B, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, 174 pp.
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Newfield M, Bull C, 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. 80 pp.
Starr F, Starr K, Loope L, 2008. Botanical survey of Midway Atoll. Prepared for: United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 27 pp. plus appendices. http://www.hear.org/starr/publications/2008_botanical_survey_of_midway_atoll_draft.pdf
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
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Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392: 1-223. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00392.pdf
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
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Distribution References
Azuwike CO, Ihejirika CE, Ajuruchi VMC, Ononiwu EZ, 2016. Antibacterial and antifungal potential of extracts of Caladium bicolor. In: TLEP International Journal, 1 24-28.
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Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos., Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation.
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
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Cooper B, Mings L, Lindsay K, Bacle JP, 2011. Environmental and Socioeconomic Baseline Studies. In: St. Kitts and Nevis Site Report,
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, Oliver RL, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. In: Micronesica, 20 1-126.
Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Araceae., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. In: Allertonia, Lawai, Hawaii, National Tropical Botanical Garden. 146 pp.
Imada CT, Staples GW, Herbst DR, 2013. Annotated Checklist of Cultivated Plants of Hawaii., http://nsdb.bishopmuseum.org/
India Biodiversity Portal, 2016. Online Portal of India Biodiversity., http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list
MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie)., Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. 164 pp.
PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database., Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Reports to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. In: Contribution No. 2003-006 to the Pacific Biological Survey, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and the Bishop Museum. 103 pp.
Space JC, Waterhouse B, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service. 174 pp.
Starr F, Starr K, Loope L, 2008. Botanical survey of Midway Atoll. In: Prepared for: United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 27 pp. http://www.hear.org/starr/publications/2008_botanical_survey_of_midway_atoll_draft.pdf
Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 Washington, Smithsonian Institution. 1-223. http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/atollresearchbulletin/issues/00392.pdf
USDA-NRCS, 2016. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Wu T, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised)., 384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
International Aroid Society | http://www.aroid.org/ |
Contributors
Top of page06/09/16 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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