Tithonia rotundifolia (red sunflower)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Tithonia rotundifolia (Mill.) S.F.Blake
Preferred Common Name
- red sunflower
Other Scientific Names
- Tagetes rotundifolia Mill.
- Tithonia aristata Oersted
- Tithonia speciosa (Hook.) Hook. ex Griseb.
- Tithonia uniflora Desf. ex J.F.Gmel.
- Urbanisol aristatus (Oerst.) Kuntze
- Urbanisol heterophyllus (Griseb.) Kuntze
- Urbanisol tagetiflora Kuntze
- Verbesina szyszylowiczii (Kuntze) Hieron
International Common Names
- English: giant Mexican sunflower; Mexican-sunflower; red marigold; shrub sunflower; tree marigold
- Spanish: chilicacate; clavel de muerto; flor amarilla; jacalate ; margarita roja; varga amarga
Local Common Names
- Brazil: girassol mexicano ; margarida-mexicana
- Haiti: belle Vénus
- Mexico: acahual; acaute de flor; tzum; zuum
- Puerto Rico: escopeta
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTithonia rotundifolia is an herbaceous flowering plant that has been widely introduced as an ornamental and has escaped from cultivation to become invasive mostly in ruderal areas, roadsides and in disturbed sites near cultivation. In this species, traits such as its rapid growth rates, abundant production of seeds that are easily dispersed by wind, water and animals, and high germination and recruitment rates are contributing to its invasiveness and allow it to quickly invade new habitats and survive even under less favourable conditions. T. rotundifolia forms dense stands with negative impact on native biodiversity as they outcompete and displace native vegetation, alter natural regeneration and obstruct access to riverbanks (Mawela, 2014; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018; ISSA, 2018).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Tithonia
- Species: Tithonia rotundifolia
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe genus Tithonia comprises about 11-20 species with a centre of distribution in Mexico and Central America (Morales, 2000; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018; The Plant List, 2018). Tithonia species are variable in life forms (i.e., herbs, shrubs, small trees), life span (including annuals, biennials and perennials) and their patterns of distribution ranges from widely distributed to restricted endemics (Morales, 2000). Two species, T. diversifolia and T. rotundifolia, are widely cultivated as ornamentals and have escaped to become invasive weeds in many tropical and subtropical areas around the world (Morales, 2000; Davidse et al., 2018).
Description
Top of pageAnnual herb, up to 4 m tall. Stems at first densely pilosulous with short hairs, in age glabrate; leaves alternate, petiolate, the blades rather thin, ovate to triangular-ovate, mostly 7-20 cm long, acuminate, cuneate (or sometimes almost truncate) at the base and then contracted and decurrent on the petiole, simple or sometimes trilobate, the margins serrate, hispid-pilose on both surfaces, especially on the veins, scabrous, glandular-punctate beneath; heads long-pedunculate; involucres 2-3 cm broad; phyllaries biseriate, 1.5-2.5 cm long, subequal or graduate, the outer ones lance-oblong to ovate-oblong, acute or acuminate, finely pilosulous, the herbaceous apex often lax or reflexed, the inner phyllaries similar but usually shorter; ray flowers 9-13, the ligules golden yellow or orange, 2-3 cm long; disc flowers yellow, the corollas puberulent, about 9 mm long; pales acuminate to cuspidate, hispidulous above, 12-18 mm long; achenes more or less appressed-pilose or glabrous, 6-7 mm long; pappus awns 2, early deciduous, or those of the outermost flowers sometimes wanting, 3-6 mm long, the squamellae united nearly to the apex, irregularly dentate, about 2 mm long (Nash, 1976).
Distribution
Top of pageT. rotundifolia is native to Mexico and Central America. It has been widely introduced as an ornamental and is now naturalized across Africa, Asia, South America, the West Indies, the southern United States, and Australia (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; GRIIS, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1944 | Invasive | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1982 | ||||
China | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Xiamen, Fujian | |||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as invasive in Xiamen | |||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | 1939 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Saba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Introduced | southeast | ||||
-California | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1934 | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageT. rotundifolia has been widely introduced as an ornamental across tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In South Africa, T. rotundifolia was introduced in the early 1900s as an ornamental plant, but is abundance has been escalating over the past 12 years and now it is listed as invasive in KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga provinces. Across South Africa, T. rotundifolia can be found invading protected areas, agricultural lands, urban and rural areas, areas near waterways, disturbed sites, railways and roadsides (Henderson 2007; Mawela, 2014). T. rotundifolia can also be found extensively naturalized across West and Southern Africa and is listed as invasive in Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005; Muoghalu, 2008; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018).
In the West Indies, the date of introduction of T. rotundifolia is unknown, but it was collected in the wild as early as 1885 in Puerto Rico, 1871 in the Dominican Republic, 1903 in Martinique, and 1904 in Cuba (US National Herbarium).
In Belgium, T. rotundifolia was first recorded in 2015 on the banks of the Schipdonk canal in Merendree. It was described as an exceptional and ephemeral escape. Plants probably germinated from soil contaminated with wild flower seed mixtures and birdseed. T. rotundifolia seems to be an exceptional alien in Europe (Verloove, 2018).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe likelihood of new introductions of T. rotundifolia is very high mainly because it is widely commercialized as an ornamental. As the rate of introduction of T. rotundifolia increases, and the plants growing in cultivation continue escaping and spreading, it becomes increasingly likely that further naturalizations and invasions of this species will occur.
Habitat
Top of pageT. rotundifolia can be found growing in damp to dry, open or brushy fields, rocky slopes, grasslands, forest edges, roadsides, agricultural lands and pastures, pond edges, riverbanks and secondary vegetation at elevations up to 1,700 m. It is also cultivated in gardens from where it often escapes (Nash, 1976; Liogier and Martorell, 2000; Mawela, 2014; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018; Davidse et al., 2018).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageT. rotundifolia is a weed of beans, chickpeas, tomato, and maize plantations. It is also listed as a weed of apple orchards and citrus plantations (Villaseñor and Espinosa, 1998; Vibrans, 2009).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Cicer arietinum (chickpea) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Citrus spp. | Main | ||
Phaseolus (beans) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Main | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for T. rotundifolia is 2n=34 (Jose and Mathew, 1995). Within its native distribution range, T. rotundifolia naturally hybridizes with Tithonia tubaeformis and the resulting hybrids show a mosaic of parental, intermediate and transgressive characters (Lopez-Caamal et al., 2013).
Reproductive Biology
T. rotundifolia reproduces sexually and plants produce a large number of seeds (113–120 seeds/capitulum). This species shows sporophytic incompatibility, and thus outcrossing is required (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005; Lopez-Caamal et al., 2013). The flowers are visited and pollinated by insects including butterflies and bees (Ponder et al., 2013).
Physiology and Phenology
T. rotundifolia is a pioneer species very successful at colonizing disturbed sites, open grounds, abandoned farms and pastures, and disturbed sites along railways and roads (Henderson 2001). This species is monocarpic and in Mexico, it has been recorded flowering from September to March (McVaugh, 1984). In South Africa, flowering occurs from late summer and throughout autumn (Simelane et al., 2011). In Zambia, T. rotundifolia produces flowers in February and completes its life cycle: flowering, setting seeds and dying by the end of June (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005). In Australia, flowering occurs from April to June (PlantNET, 2018).
Longevity
T. rotundifolia is an annual monocarpic herb. In cultivation, this species attains reproductive maturity 2 months after planting and completes its life cycle after 4 months (Muoghalu, 2008).
Environmental Requirements
T. rotundifolia prefers to grow in areas with mean annual temperatures ranging from 14°C to 28°C and mean annual rainfall in the range 800 mm - 1500 mm. It can grow in sandy, loamy and clay soils with pH in the range 6.1 to 7.8, and can also tolerate poor soils. It thrives in moist, open sunny area (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005; Muoghalu, 2008; Vibrans, 2009; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018; MBG, 2018).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
45 | 35 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 800 | 1500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Canidia mexicana | Herbivore | Plants|Stems; Plants|Whole plant | to genus | |||
Lixus fimbriolatus | Herbivore | Plants|Stems; Plants|Whole plant | to genus | |||
Puccinia enceliae | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | to genus | |||
Rhodobaenus auctus | Herbivore | Plants|Stems; Plants|Whole plant | to genus | |||
Zygogramma piceicollis | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Whole plant | to species | South Africa | ||
Zygogramma signatipennis | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Whole plant | to species | South Africa |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe following species are natural enemies of T. rotundifolia and have been reported attacking plants of this species in areas within its native range (Simelane et al., 2011):
The leaf-feeding beetles Zygogramma signatipennis and Zygogramma piceicollis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).
The stem-boring weevil Lixus fimbriolatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).
The stem-boring longhorn beetle Canidia mexicana (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae).
The stem-boring snout beetle Rhodobaenus auctus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).
The fungal rust Puccinia enceliae.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageT. rotundifolia spreads by seeds. Mature plants produce a large number of seeds that are dispersed by wind, water, animals, and in clothing. Seeds can also be dispersed in dumped garden waste and contaminated agricultural produce. Seeds can remain dormant in the soil for up to 4 months (Upfold and Staden, 1990; Patel and Manhad, 2014; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018; ISSA, 2018).
Intentional introduction
T. rotundifolia has been intentionally moved over large distances by humans to be used as an ornamental (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Breeding and propagation | Widely cultivated as garden ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2018) |
Crop production | Agricultural weed | Yes | Yes | Vibrans (2009) |
Disturbance | Pioneer species | Yes | Yes | ISSA (2018) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Seeds in dumped garden waste and contaminated agricultural produce | Yes | Yes | BioNET-EAFRINET (2018) |
Garden waste disposal | Seeds in dumped garden waste | Yes | Yes | BioNET-EAFRINET (2018) |
Horticulture | Widely commercialized as garden ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2018) |
Internet sales | Seeds available online | Yes | Yes | |
Nursery trade | Widely commercialized as garden ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2018) |
Ornamental purposes | Garden ornamental and potted plant | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2018) |
Seed trade | Widely commercialized as garden ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2018) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds in dumped garden waste and contaminated agricultural produce | Yes | Yes | BioNET-EAFRINET (2018) |
Machinery and equipment | Seeds as contaminants | Yes | Yes | BioNET-EAFRINET (2018) |
Mulch, straw, baskets and sod | Seeds as contaminants | Yes | Yes | BioNET-EAFRINET (2018) |
Seeds sold online | Yes | Yes | ||
Water | Seeds | Yes | Yes | BioNET-EAFRINET (2018) |
Wind | Seeds | Yes | Yes | BioNET-EAFRINET (2018) |
Economic Impact
Top of pageT. rotundifolia has negative impact on agricultural production. It is a weed of crop fields, orchards and citrus plantations (Villaseñor and Espinosa, 1998; Vibrans, 2009).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageT. rotundifolia is an aggressive pioneer species that quickly invades open grounds, abandoned fields, forest edges, disturbed sites, riverbanks, roadsides, and disturbed secondary forests. Once established, it grows forming dense stands with negative impact on native biodiversity as they outcompete and displace native vegetation, alter natural regeneration and obstruct access to riverbanks. This species is particularly problematic across Africa, principally in South Africa where it has been declared a Category 1 invasive weed (Henderson, 2007; Mawela, 2014; ISSA, 2018) and in Zimbabwe, Zambia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania where it is regarded as a noxious weed and invasive plant (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005; Muoghalu, 2008; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018).
Social Impact
Top of pageIn South Africa, T. rotundifolia often forms dense stands along road verges that can obstruct motorists' vision (ISSA, 2018).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Transportation disruption
- Allelopathic
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Hybridization
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageT. rotundifolia is widely cultivated as a garden ornamental and hedge plant ((ISSA, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018). The flowers of this species are reported to yield a good grade of honey (Nash, 1976). In East Africa it is also grown for green manure (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018).
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageT. rotundifolia is similar to the closely related T. diversifolia, and to the real wild sunflower Helianthus annuus. These three species can be distinguished by the following traits (Weeds of Australia, 2018):
Tithonia rotundifolia has leaves without lobes or with rounded lobes. Its flower-heads have bright yellow centers and orange or reddish petals (i.e. ray florets) 2-3.5 cm long.
Tithonia diversifolia has leaves with 3-7 pointed lobes. Its flower-heads have bright yellow centres and yellow petals (i.e. ray florets) 4-7 cm long.
Helianthus annuus has leaves without lobes. Its flower-heads have orange-brown to dark brown centers and yellow petals (i.e. ray florets) 2-3 cm long.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
Young plants as well as small infestations can be removed manually, but mechanical control is ineffective due to rapid recruitment of seedlings in cleared sites (Mawela; 2014; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018).
Biological Control
In 2007, T. rotundifolia was targeted for biological control in South Africa. Surveys conducted in the native range (Mexico) revealed five potential biological control agents for this species. Three of these agents are currently undergoing host-specificity and performance evaluations in South Africa. Two leaf-feeding beetles, Zygogramma signatipennis and Zygogramma piceicollis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), are the most promising biological control agents and preliminary host-specificity trials suggest that they are adequately host-specific. The stem-boring beetle, Lixus fimbriolatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is also highly damaging to T. rotundifolia, but its host range is yet to be determined. Two other stem-boring beetles, Canidia mexicana (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and Rhodobaenus auctust (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and one pathogen Puccinia enceliae (Uredinales: Pucciniaceae), also cause damage on T. rotundifolia, but have not been successfully reared under quarantine conditions (Simelane et al., 2011).
Chemical Control
Herbicides such as triclopyr, picloram, metsulfuron-methyl, and 2,4-D are recommended for the control of Tithonia species (i.e., T. rotundifolia and T. diversitfolia) in Australia (Biosecurity Queensland, 2016).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, no. 98. Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, Washington DC, 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018. Invasive Species in East Africa. https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/index.htm
Biosecurity Queensland, 2016. Factsheet for Japanese sunflower. https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/62682/IPA-Japanese-sunflower-PP84.pdf
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018. Flora of North America North of Mexico. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
GRIIS, 2018. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species. http://www.griis.org/
ISSA, 2018. Invasive Species South Africa: Tithonia rotundifolia. . http://www.invasives.org.za/legislation/item/817-red-sunflower-tithonia-rotundifolia
Jose JC, Mathew PM, 1995. Chromosome numbers in the south Indian Heliantheae (Compositae). Compositae Newsletter, 27, 7-10.
Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG, 2015. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia, Monographs in Systematic Botany 127(1–2): i–viii, 1–1744. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis
Liogier AH, Martorell LF, 2000. Flora of Puerto Rico and adjacent islands: a systematic synopsis, San Juan, Puerto Rico: Editorial de la Univerisdad de Puerto Rico.
Magenta MAG, 2015. Tithonia in the list of species of the flora of Brazil. (Tithonia in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro.http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB16350
Mawela KV, 2014. Tithonia rotundifolia: Fact Sheets on Invasive Alien Plants and their Control in South Africa. Plant Protection Research Institute. www.arc.agric.za
MBG, 2018. Missouri Botanical Garden: Gardening help for Tithonia rotundifolia. http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=b763
McVaugh, R, 1984. Compositae. Flora Novo-Galiciana. A descriptive account of the vascular plants of Western Mexico, Vol. 12, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA: The University of Michigan Press.
Morales E, 2000. Estimating phylogenetic inertia in Tithonia (Asteraceae): A comparative approach. Evolution, 52(2), 474-484.
Nash DL, 1976. Tribe V, Heliantheae. In: Nash DL, Williams LO (Eds.). Flora of Guatemala - Part XII. Fieldiana, Bot. 24(12): 181–361
Patel RG, Manhad AU, 2014. Effect of Gibberellins on seed germination of Tithonia rotundifolia Blake. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 3(3), 10680-10684.
PlantNET, 2018. The NSW Plant Information Network System. Sydney, Australia: Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust.http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au
Ponder MV, Frankie GW, Elkins R, et al., 2013. How to Attract and Maintain Pollinators in Your Garden. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3dw47730 10.3733/ucanr.8498
The Plant List, 2018. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
USDA-ARS, 2018. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
USDA-NRCS, 2018. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Verloove F, 2018. Tithonia rotundidolia. On: Manual of the Alien Plants of Belgium. Botanic Garden of Meise, Belgium. http://alienplantsbelgium.be/
Vibrans H, 2009. Weeds of Mexico. (Malezas de México). CONABIO.http://www.conabio.gob.mx
Villaseñor JL, Espinosa-Garcia FJ, 1998. Catálogo de malezas de México. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Consejo Nacional Consultivo Fitosanitario. Fondo de Cultura Económica. México, D.F
Weeds of Australia, 2018. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=
Distribution References
BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018. Invasive Species in East Africa., https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/index.htm
GRIIS, 2018. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species., http://www.griis.org/
ISSA, 2018. Invasive Species South Africa: Tithonia rotundifolia., http://www.invasives.org.za/legislation/item/817-red-sunflower-tithonia-rotundifolia
Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG, 2015. (Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia, Monographs in Systematic Botany 127(1–2): i–viii, 1–1744). In: Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 127 (1-2) Missouri Botanical Garden Press. i-viii, 1-1744.
Magenta MAG, 2015. Tithonia. In: Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB16350
Verloove F, 2018. Tithonia rotundidolia. In: Manual of the Alien Plants of Belgium, Belgium: Botanic Garden of Meise. http://alienplantsbelgium.be/
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page12/08/18 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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