Nopalea cochenillifera (cochineal cactus)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck
Preferred Common Name
- cochineal cactus
Other Scientific Names
- Cactus cochenillifer L.
- Opuntia cochenillifera (L.) Mill.
International Common Names
- English: cochineal nopal cactus; cochineal-plant; nopal cactus; nopales opuntia; prickly pear; slippery cassie; sweet palm; velvet opuntia; warm hand; woolly joint prickly pear
- Spanish: nochestli; nocheznopal; nopal chamacuero; nopal de cochinilla; nopal de la cochinilla; nopal de San Gabriel; nopal nochetzli; nopalea cactus; tunita
- French: cocheniller; raquette Espagnole; raquette sans piquant
- Portuguese: cacto-de-cochonilha; cacto-sem-espinhos; palma; palma-de-engorda
- German: Cochenille-Feigenkaktus; wachet
Local Common Names
- Anguilla: French prickle
- Barbados: scrunchineel
- Brazil: cacto-sem-espinho; cardo-de-cochinilha; nopal; palma-doce; palma-forrageira; palma-miuda; palmatória; palmatória-doce; urumbeta
- Cuba: tuna; tuna blanca; tuna mansa
- Dominican Republic: alquitira
- El Salvador: cactus; higo chombo; tuna nopal
- French Guiana: raquette
- Guam: lengua-de-vaca
- Guyana: cochineal
- Indonesia: kaktus centong
- Mexico: biaa; piaa
- Norway: cochenillekaktus
- Palau: esbocheb
- Philippines: dapal; dila-dila; dilang-baka; palad
- Saint Helena: English tungy; Opuntia; white tungy
- Suriname: nopari
- Sweden: kochenillkaktus
- Venezuela: tuna real
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageNopalea cochenillifera is a shrub or tree species reported as native to Mexico, but known from cultivation for centuries. It was introduced into tropical and subtropical areas after the Spanish colonisation of Mexico, to raise cochineal insects to produce red dyes commercially. Although this industry declined with the introduction of synthetic dyes, the species is still used for this purpose at a smaller scale. N. cochenillifera is now mainly used as an ornamental, a fodder/forage species and a vegetable. It is reported as a potential noxious weed due to its ease of reproducing vegetatively through plant fragments. It is reported as invasive in Hawaii (USA), Cuba, Guatemala and French Polynesia. However, no details about its impacts on other species or habitats have been recorded.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Caryophyllales
- Family: Cactaceae
- Genus: Nopalea
- Species: Nopalea cochenillifera
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe Cactaceae family includes several species of economic importance. The family has over 1450 species and c. 127 genera, with the greatest species richness being observed in Mexico (Hernández-Hernández et al., 2011). Nopalea comes from “nopal”, a local Mexican name for cactus, and cochenillifera refers to the cochineal insect cultivated on these plants for producing a red colour dye (Downs, 1965).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2017):
Shrubs or trees to 4-5 m; trunks 15-20 cm diameter. Stem segments linear to narrowly obovate, sometimes slightly falcate, (10-)15-35(-50) x 5-15 cm; areoles 2-3+ cm apart, 2-5 mm diameter; wool tawny, whitening with age. Spines usually absent or 1(-3), particularly on older pads, straight or curved, brown, aging grey, stout, to 2 cm. Glochids inconspicuous. Flowers 4-7 cm; inner tepals spatulate; crowded pink filaments and white style much longer than tepals, to 15 mm; nectar chamber elliptic to obconic. Fruits ellipsoid, 25-40 x 20-25 mm; areoles well distributed. Seeds tan to grey, 3-5 x 1.5-3 mm, slightly pubescent.
Distribution
Top of pageAccording to Dressler (1953), N. cochenillifera is native to southern Mexico, but Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) include Central America in its native range. The precise native range is unknown, as it is difficult to differentiate original populations from those from areas where the species has been cultivated for centuries (Arreola et al., 2013). The species has been introduced in Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America (see Distribution Table for details; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Flora do Brasil, 2017; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; PIER, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present | Introduced | 1883 | ||||
Mozambique | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Saint Helena | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | 1984 | ||||
China | Present | Introduced | 1901 | ||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | |||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | Based on regional distribution | ||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | 1855 | ||||
Israel | Present | Introduced | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | 1913 | ||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | 1880 | Also a report from Opuntia cochenillifera? c. 1695 | |||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Also as cultivated | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | 1824 | ||||
Syria | Present | Introduced | 1932 | ||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | 1931 | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Spain | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Introduced | |||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | 1901 | Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | |||
Belize | Present | Introduced | Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | ||||
Bermuda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Sint Eustatius | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | Persistent after cultivation at Tortola | ||||
Canada | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | 1891 | Grand Cayman | |||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Puntarenas, San José | ||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Transformer species | |||
Dominica | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | 1871 | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | La Libertad | ||||
Grenada | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | 1892 | Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | |||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Probably introduced. Also cultivated | |||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | 1925 | Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | |||
Honduras | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | Near houses for household consumption | ||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | 1890 | ||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | 1888 | Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | |||
Mexico | Present | Native | Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Querétaro, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Yucatán | ||||
Montserrat | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | Atlántico Sur, Granada, Managua, Masaya | ||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | 1913 | Canal area | |||
Puerto Rico | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | 1906 | At Desecheo Island (evidently planted), Vieques, Culebra; Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | |||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | 1903 | Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | |||
Saint Lucia | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Sint Maarten | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | St. John; Original citation: New York Botanical Garden (2017) | ||||
United States | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Dave's Garden (2017) | ||||
-California | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also as cultivated. Kaua’i, Maui, O’ahu | |||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Dave's Garden (2017) | ||||
Oceania |
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Australia | Present | Introduced | 1843 | ||||
Cook Islands | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | Not naturalized | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Also cultivated. Ovalau Island | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also cultivated. Marquesa, Society and Austral Islands, Tuamotu Archipelago | |||
Guam | Present | Introduced | 1970 | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Santa Cruz | ||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Paraiba | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | |||||
Colombia | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Peru | Absent, Formerly present | ||||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | 1903 | ||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Bolivar, Guyana Venezolana; Original citation: Díaz P and Delasio-Chitty (2007) |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageN. cochenillifera is a perennial shrub/tree cactus species that has been introduced into various countries as a host of the cochineal insect for the commercial production of red dyes (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; PIER, 2017). Its further use as an ornamental, vegetable and forage/fodder species has contributed to its spread (PIER, 2017).
The use of the species in the textile dye industry was well established in Mexico when the Spanish arrived to that country. From Mexico, they took the cactus and the cochineal insect to southern Spain, India, Africa, Colombia, Jamaica and the Canary Islands (Hanelt, 2017). France was also one of the leading importers of cochineal insects in the mid-nineteenth century (Donkin, 1977). The species was present in Asia and Oceania prior to the 1800s (Byles, 1951) and there is an unconfirmed record for the Philippines dated from about 1695 (Donkin, 1977). N. cochenillifera has been present in the Caribbean since the 1800s (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; New York Botanical Garden, 2017). Although no date is given, Fuentes Fiallo (2011-2012) reports the species was introduced to Cuba as a host of Dactylopius coccus. In the eighteenth century, it was introduced by the Portuguese from the Canary Islands to Brazil (Domingues, 1960).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
China | 1901 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Encyclopedia of Life (2017) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
India | Mexico | 1795 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Donkin (1977) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | |
Indonesia | 1855 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Donkin (1977) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
Myanmar | 1913 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Donkin (1977) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
Philippines | 1880 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Donkin (1977) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
Sri Lanka | 1824 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Donkin (1977) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
Syria | 1932 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Donkin (1977) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
Thailand | 1931 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Donkin (1977) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
Cuba | 1903 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | Yes | No | New York Botanical Garden (2017) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | ||
Jamaica | Mexico | 1891 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Missouri Botanical Garden (2017) | As a host organism, for the cultivation of cochineal insects | |
Martinique | 1888 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | New York Botanical Garden (2017) | As a host organism | ||
Algeria | 1833 | Intentional release (pathway cause) | No | No | Donkin (1977) | Introduced by the French as a host organism for the cultivation of cochineal insects |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageN. cochenillifera has a medium risk of introduction into tropical and subtropical areas because of its use as an ornamental, a vegetable and as a forage/fodder species. Although the Cactaceae trade is regulated by CITES and the species is reported as only in cultivation in some countries, its high reproductive potential and the possibility of it spreading different pests make it a species of concern, with the potential of becoming invasive (Dave's Garden, 2017; IUCN, 2017; LLifle, 2017).
Habitat
Top of pageN. cochenillifera is reported from tropical dry forests, mountain slopes, hammocks, fields, sandy soils, dunes, forest openings, semi-arid scrub forest, savannas, coastal forests and cultivated fields (Arreola et al., 2013; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Flora do Brasil, 2017; ISSG, 2017; LLifle, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It is found from sea level up to elevations of 1500 m (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017).
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for this species is 2n = 22 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017). In vitro propagation techniques have been developed for N. cochenillifera and germplasm collections are stored at USA Agricultural Research Station facilities (Brasil et al., 2005; Houllou-Kido et al., 2009; USDA-ARS, 2017). DNA barcode information for the species is available at the Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD, 2017).
Reproductive Biology
N. cochenillifera easily propagates vegetatively, the pads rooting rapidly in loose, well-draining soil (ISSG, 2017; LLifle, 2017). It can also be propagated by seed, which need to be fermented to simulate passing through the digestive tract of natural dispersers (LLifle, 2017). Flowers are visited by bees, butterflies and birds (Dave's Garden, 2017). In cultivation, fruits must be overripe before harvesting the seeds, which need to be sown as soon as possible (Dave's Garden, 2017).
Physiology and Phenology
N. cochenillifera flowers from March to September (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; ISSG, 2017). It is sensitive to root rot if over-watered (LLifle, 2017).
Associations
N. cochenillifera is one of the hosts of the cochineal insect Dactylopius coccus (Downs, 1965).
Environmental Requirements
N. cochenillifera grows best in full sun and in any kind of well-drained soil (Dave's Garden, 2017). It tolerates drought, but prefers regular watering (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It grows in soils with pH ranging from 6.1 to 7.8 (Dave's Garden, 2017). The species survives to -2°C, but is not frost resistant, not withstanding temperatures lower than -5°C (LLifle, 2017). When grown as an ornamental in temperate areas, the plant needs to be moved inside during winter (Dave's Garden, 2017).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Tolerated | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tolerated | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Preferred | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
32 | 31 | 0 | 1500 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -5 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | -2 | 35 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 430 | 1500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria alternata | Pathogen | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Cactoblastis | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Cactoblastis cactorum | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | Australia | ||
Cactus virus X | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Dactylopius | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Dactylopius coccus | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Diaspis echinocacti | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Neofusicoccum batangarum | Pathogen | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Pythium aphanidermatum | Pathogen | Plants|Stems | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe natural enemies reported for N. cochenillifera are the insects Dactylopius coccus, Dactylopius spp., Cactoblastis spp., Diaspis echinocacti, the fungi Alternaria tenuis [Alternaria alternata], Pythium aphanidermatum, Neofusicoccum batangarum, and the pathogen Cactus virus X (Lastra et al., 1976; Born et al., 2009; Lima et al., 2011; Conforto et al., 2016; Feijó et al., 2016; ISSG, 2017).
The insect Cactoblastis cactorum, which has been introduced as a biological control agent for cacti in Australia, Africa and the Caribbean, is considered a threat to native cacti species of Central, North America and the Caribbean (Zimmermann et al., 2000; Solis et al., 2004).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
N. cochenillifera spreads vegetatively and can also be propagated by seed (LLifle, 2017).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Seeds of N. cochenillifera are spread by birds and bats (LLifle, 2017).
Accidental Introduction
N. cochenillifera can be dispersed through garden waste (PIER, 2017).
Intentional Introduction
N. cochenillifera has been intentionally introduced into much of its range for its cultivation as the host of the cochineal insect and as an ornamental, vegetable or forage/fodder species (Arreola et al., 2013; Hanelt, 2017).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Breeding and propagation | As an ornamental | Yes | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Planted as an ornamental; propagates easily vegetatively | Yes | Yes | PIER (2017) |
Food | Used as a vegetable | Yes | Yes | Hanelt (2017) |
Forage | Used as a fodder/forage species | Yes | Yes | Hanelt (2017) |
Garden waste disposal | Planted as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | PIER (2017) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Suggested for restoration of mined habitats | Yes | Yes | Howard (1991) |
Hedges and windbreaks | Planted as an ornamental for hedges | Yes | Yes | Hanelt (2017) |
Horticulture | Used as ornamental | Yes | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) |
Intentional release | Introduced as an ornamental, a host of the cochineal insect, a vegetable and a fodder/forage species | Yes | Yes | Encyclopedia of Life (2017) |
Live food or feed trade | Pads are sold to be eaten as a vegetable | Yes | ||
Medicinal use | Several uses in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | Encyclopedia of Life (2017); Useful Tropical Plants (2017) |
Nursery trade | Available at various nurseries and online sites | Yes | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) |
Off-site preservation | Germplasm preserved | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | ||
People foraging | Used as a vegetable | Yes | Yes | Encyclopedia of Life (2017) |
Seed trade | Available at online sites | Yes | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Can spread through garden waste | Yes | PIER (2017) | |
Germplasm | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2017) | |
Host and vector organisms | The species is a host organism of the cochineal insect | Encyclopedia of Life (2017) | ||
Available online | Yes | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) | |
Soil, sand and gravel | Can be spread through garden waste | Yes | PIER (2017) |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageThe species is reported as a potential noxious weed due to its high reproductive potential and the ease by which it spreads vegetatively through plant fragments. It can also potentially spread pests that might have a negative effect on other cacti species. Nevertheless, more information about the potential impacts of N. cochenillifera on native species and habitats is needed.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Reproduces asexually
- Pest and disease transmission
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
For centuries, N. cochenillifera has been widely cultivated for its use as a host of the cochineal insect, in order to produce red dyes (Arreola et al., 2013). Although this use declined with the appearance of synthetic dyes, the species is still cultivated to produce dyes, which are used as natural colouring in food, soft drinks and cosmetics (LLifle, 2017; PIER, 2017). In a note found in a 1906 specimen from Puerto Rico, it is written that, in 1868, the export value of the species from the Canary Islands alone was 4,000,000 USA dollars (New York Botanical Garden, 2017). The species is also widely used commercially as an ornamental, a vegetable and a forage/fodder species (Dave's Garden, 2017; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017).
Social Benefit
N. cochenillifera is used as an ornamental species for hedges, and is used for producing glue, handicrafts and furniture (Martínez Betancourt et al., 2000; Fuentes Fiallo, 2002; Lira et al., 2009; Hanelt, 2017). The stems and fruits are used as a vegetable, eaten raw or cooked (Arreola et al., 2013; LLifle, 2017). It is also used in religious ceremonies (Fuentes Fiallo, 2003) and as a fodder and forage species (ISSG, 2017).
The following medicinal uses are reported for the species: to treat rheumatism, haemorrhoids, ear pain, headaches, fever, babies’ colds, hypertension, tumours, inflammation, coughs, fungal skin infections, indigestion, kidney and spleen problems, and to purify the blood (Weeks and Black, 1992; Martínez Betancourt et al., 2000; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). Indigenous communities in Mexico use it to bathe mother and infant at post-partum (Smith-Oka, 2008). It is also used as a shampoo (Handler and Jacoby, 1993). In ethnoveterinary medicine, it is used to treat inflammation in horses (Lans et al., 2006).
Environmental Services
N. cochenillifera is used to enrich the soil, trap water and prevent its loss through evaporation (ISSG, 2017). The species has been suggested for use in phytoremediation of waste products of the textile-dye industry and as an hyperaccumulator and phytoremediator of chromium (Adki et al., 2012; 2013). It is also recommended for the revegetation of mined bauxitic soils and the rehabilitation of degraded arid habitats (Le Houerou, 1976; Howard, 1991).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
- Invertebrate food
Environmental
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Revegetation
- Soil improvement
- Wildlife habitat
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
- Ritual uses
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Beverage base
- Vegetable
Materials
- Cosmetics
- Dyestuffs
- Miscellaneous materials
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
- Veterinary
Ornamental
- garden plant
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Biological control
Cochineal (Dactylopius spp.) and cactoblast (Cactoblastis spp.) insect species have been used as biological control agents for N. cochenillifera (ISSG, 2017). Cactoblastis cactorum, which was introduced as a biological agent for cacti in Australia, Africa and the Caribbean, is also reported as a threat to native cacti of Central and North America (Zimmermann et al., 2000).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageMore detailed information about the species impacts on invaded habitats and other species is needed.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the seed plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1-1192. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.
Arreola H, Ishiki M, Terrazas T, 2013. Nopalea cochenillifera. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013. Cambridge, UK: The International Union for Conservation of Nature. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T152027A588771.en
BOLD, 2017. BOLD Systems - Barcode of Life Data System. http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/
Byles RS, 1951. Notes on Indian and other south east Asiatic succulents. The National Cactus and Succulent Journal, 6(3):51-53
D'Arcy WG, 1967. Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola, Virgin Islands. Rhodora, 69(780):385-450
Dave's Garden, 2017. Online resources. California, USA: Internet Brands. http://davesgarden.com/
Donkin RA, 1977. Spanish red: an ethnogeographical study of Cochineal and the Opuntia cactus. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 67(5):1-84
Downs PE, 1965. What’s in a name? The National Cactus and Succulent Journal, 20(3):44
Encyclopedia of Life, 2017. Encyclopedia of Life. http://www.eol.org/
Flora do Brasil, 2017. Brazilian Flora 2020 under construction. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden. http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/reflora/listaBrasil/ConsultaPublicaUC/ConsultaPublicaUC.do#CondicaoTaxonCP
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of North America North of Mexico. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachussets, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Flowers of India, 2017. Flowers of India. http://www.flowersofindia.net/
Fuentes Fiallo VR, 2003. Notes for the economic flora of Cuba VII: fruit species. (Apuntes para la flora económica de Cuba VII: especies frutales). Revista del Jardín Botánico Nacional, 24(1/2):177-217
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Handler JS, Jacoby J, 1993. Slave medicine and plant use in Barbados. Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society, 41:74-98
Hanelt P, 2017. Mansfeld’s World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Gatersleben, Germany: Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK). http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/apex/f?p=185:3
Howard RA, 1961. The botanical results of the US Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo in 1871. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 42(2):115-143
Howard RA, 1991. The revegetation of strip mined bauxitic soils. Allertonia, 6(2):59-127
ISSG, 2017. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/
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Leuenberger BE, 1987. A preliminary list of Cactaceae from the Guianas and recommendations for future collecting and preparation of specimens. Willdenowia, 16(2):497-510
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Mill SW, Wagner WL, Herbst DR, 1985. Bibliography of Otto and Isa Degeners’ Hawaiian Floras. Taxon, 34(2):229-259
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Spencer JL, 1955. A cytological study of the Cactaceae of Puerto Rico. Botanical Gazette, 117(1):33-37
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Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
D'Arcy WG, 1967. Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola, Virgin Islands. In: Rhodora, 69 (780) 385-450.
Donkin RA, 1977. Spanish red: an ethnogeographical study of Cochineal and the Opuntia cactus. In: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 67 (5) 1-84.
Flora do Brasil, 2017. Brazilian Flora 2020 under construction., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden. http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/reflora/listaBrasil/ConsultaPublicaUC/ConsultaPublicaUC.do#CondicaoTaxonCP
Flowers of India, 2017. Flowers of India., http://www.flowersofindia.net/
Hanelt P, 2017. Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops., Gatersleben, Germany: Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK). http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/apex/f?p=185:3
Howard RA, 1961. The botanical results of the US Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo in 1871. In: Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 42 (2) 115-143.
ISSG, 2017. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/
Leuenberger BE, 1987. A preliminary list of Cactaceae from the Guianas and recommendations for future collecting and preparation of specimens. In: Willdenowia, 16 (2) 497-510.
Mill SW, Wagner WL, Herbst DR, 1985. Bibliography of Otto and Isa Degeners' Hawaiian Floras. In: Taxon, 34 (2) 229-259.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
PIER, 2017. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Sainkhediva J, 2015. New addition to the flora of Madhya Pradesh from Harda district, India. In: Lifescience Leaflets, 61 37-41.
Spencer JL, 1955. A cytological study of the Cactaceae of Puerto Rico. In: Botanical Gazette, 117 (1) 33-37.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Cook Islands Biodiversity database | http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org | |
Dave's Garden | http://davesgarden.com/ | |
Flora do Brasil | http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/reflora/listaBrasil/ConsultaPublicaUC/ConsultaPublicaUC.do#CondicaoTaxonCP | |
Flowers of India | http://www.flowersofindia.net/ | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global Invasive Species Database | http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/index.php | |
LLifle Enclyclopedias of Living Forms | http://www.llifle.com/ | |
Mansfeld's World Database of Agriculture and Horticultural Crops | http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/apex/f?p=185:3:::::: | |
New York Botanical Garden database | http://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/vh/ | |
Plants of The Eastern Caribbean | http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/ | |
The Barcode of Life Data Systems | http://www.boldsystems.org/ | |
Useful Tropical Plants | http://tropical.theferns.info/ |
Contributors
Top of page05/03/17 Original text by:
Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, USA
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