Nopalea cochenillifera
(cochineal cactus)

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck

Preferred Common Name

• cochineal cactus

Other Scientific Names

• Cactus cochenillifer L.
• Opuntia cochenillifera (L.) Mill.

International Common Names

• English: cochineal nopal cactus; cochineal-plant; nopal cactus; nopales opuntia; prickly pear; slippery cassie; sweet palm; velvet opuntia; warm hand; woolly joint prickly pear
• Spanish: nochestli; nocheznopal; nopal chamacuero; nopal de cochinilla; nopal de la cochinilla; nopal de San Gabriel; nopal nochetzli; nopalea cactus; tunita
• French: cocheniller; raquette Espagnole; raquette sans piquant
• Portuguese: cacto-de-cochonilha; cacto-sem-espinhos; palma; palma-de-engorda
• German: Cochenille-Feigenkaktus; wachet

Local Common Names

• Anguilla: French prickle
• Barbados: scrunchineel
• Brazil: cacto-sem-espinho; cardo-de-cochinilha; nopal; palma-doce; palma-forrageira; palma-miuda; palmatória; palmatória-doce; urumbeta
• Cuba: tuna; tuna blanca; tuna mansa
• Dominican Republic: alquitira
• El Salvador: cactus; higo chombo; tuna nopal
• French Guiana: raquette
• Guam: lengua-de-vaca
• Guyana: cochineal
• Indonesia: kaktus centong
• Mexico: biaa; piaa
• Norway: cochenillekaktus
• Palau: esbocheb
• Philippines: dapal; dila-dila; dilang-baka; palad
• Saint Helena: English tungy; Opuntia; white tungy
• Suriname: nopari
• Sweden: kochenillkaktus
• Venezuela: tuna real

Summary of Invasiveness

Nopalea cochenillifera is a shrub or tree species reported as native to Mexico, but known from cultivation for centuries. It was introduced into tropical and subtropical areas after the Spanish colonisation of Mexico, to raise cochineal insects to produce red dyes commercially. Although this industry declined with the introduction of synthetic dyes, the species is still used for this purpose at a smaller scale. N. cochenillifera is now mainly used as an ornamental, a fodder/forage species and a vegetable. It is reported as a potential noxious weed due to its ease of reproducing vegetatively through plant fragments. It is reported as invasive in Hawaii (USA), Cuba, Guatemala and French Polynesia. However, no details about its impacts on other species or habitats have been recorded.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Caryophyllales
•                         Family: Cactaceae
•                             Genus: Nopalea
•                                 Species: Nopalea cochenillifera

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The Cactaceae family includes several species of economic importance. The family has over 1450 species and c. 127 genera, with the greatest species richness being observed in Mexico (Hernández-Hernández et al., 2011). Nopalea comes from “nopal”, a local Mexican name for cactus, and cochenillifera refers to the cochineal insect cultivated on these plants for producing a red colour dye (Downs, 1965).

Description

The following description is from Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2017):

Shrubs or trees to 4-5 m; trunks 15-20 cm diameter. Stem segments linear to narrowly obovate, sometimes slightly falcate, (10-)15-35(-50) x 5-15 cm; areoles 2-3+ cm apart, 2-5 mm diameter; wool tawny, whitening with age. Spines usually absent or 1(-3), particularly on older pads, straight or curved, brown, aging grey, stout, to 2 cm. Glochids inconspicuous. Flowers 4-7 cm; inner tepals spatulate; crowded pink filaments and white style much longer than tepals, to 15 mm; nectar chamber elliptic to obconic. Fruits ellipsoid, 25-40 x 20-25 mm; areoles well distributed. Seeds tan to grey, 3-5 x 1.5-3 mm, slightly pubescent.

Plant Type

Distribution

According to Dressler (1953), N. cochenillifera is native to southern Mexico, but Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) include Central America in its native range. The precise native range is unknown, as it is difficult to differentiate original populations from those from areas where the species has been cultivated for centuries (Arreola et al., 2013). The species has been introduced in Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America (see Distribution Table for details; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Flora do Brasil, 2017; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; PIER, 2017;  USDA-ARS, 2017).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

N. cochenillifera is a perennial shrub/tree cactus species that has been introduced into various countries as a host of the cochineal insect for the commercial production of red dyes (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; PIER, 2017). Its further use as an ornamental, vegetable and forage/fodder species has contributed to its spread (PIER, 2017).

The use of the species in the textile dye industry was well established in Mexico when the Spanish arrived to that country. From Mexico, they took the cactus and the cochineal insect to southern Spain, India, Africa, Colombia, Jamaica and the Canary Islands (Hanelt, 2017). France was also one of the leading importers of cochineal insects in the mid-nineteenth century (Donkin, 1977). The species was present in Asia and Oceania prior to the 1800s (Byles, 1951) and there is an unconfirmed record for the Philippines dated from about 1695 (Donkin, 1977). N. cochenillifera has been present in the Caribbean since the 1800s (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; New York Botanical Garden, 2017). Although no date is given, Fuentes Fiallo (2011-2012) reports the species was introduced to Cuba as a host of Dactylopius coccus. In the eighteenth century, it was introduced by the Portuguese from the Canary Islands to Brazil (Domingues, 1960).

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

N. cochenillifera has a medium risk of introduction into tropical and subtropical areas because of its use as an ornamental, a vegetable and as a forage/fodder species. Although the Cactaceae trade is regulated by CITES and the species is reported as only in cultivation in some countries, its high reproductive potential and the possibility of it spreading different pests make it a species of concern, with the potential of becoming invasive (Dave's Garden, 2017; IUCN, 2017; LLifle, 2017).

Habitat

N. cochenillifera is reported from tropical dry forests, mountain slopes, hammocks, fields, sandy soils, dunes, forest openings, semi-arid scrub forest, savannas, coastal forests and cultivated fields (Arreola et al., 2013; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Flora do Brasil, 2017; ISSG, 2017; LLifle, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It is found from sea level up to elevations of 1500 m (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017).

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number reported for this species is 2n = 22 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017). In vitro propagation techniques have been developed for N. cochenillifera and germplasm collections are stored at USA Agricultural Research Station facilities (Brasil et al., 2005; Houllou-Kido et al., 2009; USDA-ARS, 2017). DNA barcode information for the species is available at the Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD, 2017).

Reproductive Biology

N. cochenillifera easily propagates vegetatively, the pads rooting rapidly in loose, well-draining soil (ISSG, 2017; LLifle, 2017). It can also be propagated by seed, which need to be fermented to simulate passing through the digestive tract of natural dispersers (LLifle, 2017). Flowers are visited by bees, butterflies and birds (Dave's Garden, 2017). In cultivation, fruits must be overripe before harvesting the seeds, which need to be sown as soon as possible (Dave's Garden, 2017).

Physiology and Phenology

N. cochenillifera flowers from March to September (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; ISSG, 2017). It is sensitive to root rot if over-watered (LLifle, 2017).

Associations

N. cochenillifera is one of the hosts of the cochineal insect Dactylopius coccus (Downs, 1965).

Environmental Requirements

N. cochenillifera grows best in full sun and in any kind of well-drained soil (Dave's Garden, 2017). It tolerates drought, but prefers regular watering (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It grows in soils with pH ranging from 6.1 to 7.8 (Dave's Garden, 2017). The species survives to -2°C, but is not frost resistant, not withstanding temperatures lower than -5°C (LLifle, 2017). When grown as an ornamental in temperate areas, the plant needs to be moved inside during winter (Dave's Garden, 2017).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

The natural enemies reported for N. cochenillifera are the insects Dactylopius coccus, Dactylopius spp., Cactoblastis spp., Diaspis echinocacti, the fungi Alternaria tenuis [Alternaria alternata], Pythium aphanidermatum, Neofusicoccum batangarum, and the pathogen Cactus virus X (Lastra et al., 1976; Born et al., 2009; Lima et al., 2011; Conforto et al., 2016; Feijó et al., 2016; ISSG, 2017).

The insect Cactoblastis cactorum, which has been introduced as a biological control agent for cacti in Australia, Africa and the Caribbean, is considered a threat to native cacti species of Central, North America and the Caribbean (Zimmermann et al., 2000; Solis et al., 2004).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

N. cochenillifera spreads vegetatively and can also be propagated by seed (LLifle, 2017).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Seeds of N. cochenillifera are spread by birds and bats (LLifle, 2017).

Accidental Introduction

N. cochenillifera can be dispersed through garden waste (PIER, 2017).

Intentional Introduction

N. cochenillifera has been intentionally introduced into much of its range for its cultivation as the host of the cochineal insect and as an ornamental, vegetable or forage/fodder species (Arreola et al., 2013; Hanelt, 2017).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Environmental Impact

The species is reported as a potential noxious weed due to its high reproductive potential and the ease by which it spreads vegetatively through plant fragments. It can also potentially spread pests that might have a negative effect on other cacti species. Nevertheless, more information about the potential impacts of N. cochenillifera on native species and habitats is needed.

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Reproduces asexually

• Pest and disease transmission
• Produces spines, thorns or burrs

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Economic Value

For centuries, N. cochenillifera has been widely cultivated for its use as a host of the cochineal insect, in order to produce red dyes (Arreola et al., 2013). Although this use declined with the appearance of synthetic dyes, the species is still cultivated to produce dyes, which are used as natural colouring in food, soft drinks and cosmetics (LLifle, 2017; PIER, 2017). In a note found in a 1906 specimen from Puerto Rico, it is written that, in 1868, the export value of the species from the Canary Islands alone was 4,000,000 USA dollars (New York Botanical Garden, 2017). The species is also widely used commercially as an ornamental, a vegetable and a forage/fodder species (Dave's Garden, 2017; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017).

Social Benefit

N. cochenillifera is used as an ornamental species for hedges, and is used for producing glue, handicrafts and furniture (Martínez Betancourt et al., 2000; Fuentes Fiallo, 2002; Lira et al., 2009; Hanelt, 2017). The stems and fruits are used as a vegetable, eaten raw or cooked (Arreola et al., 2013; LLifle, 2017). It is also used in religious ceremonies (Fuentes Fiallo, 2003) and as a fodder and forage species (ISSG, 2017).

The following medicinal uses are reported for the species: to treat rheumatism, haemorrhoids, ear pain, headaches, fever, babies’ colds, hypertension, tumours, inflammation, coughs, fungal skin infections, indigestion, kidney and spleen problems, and to purify the blood (Weeks and Black, 1992; Martínez Betancourt et al., 2000; Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). Indigenous communities in Mexico use it to bathe mother and infant at post-partum (Smith-Oka, 2008). It is also used as a shampoo (Handler and Jacoby, 1993). In ethnoveterinary medicine, it is used to treat inflammation in horses (Lans et al., 2006).

Environmental Services

N. cochenillifera is used to enrich the soil, trap water and prevent its loss through evaporation (ISSG, 2017). The species has been suggested for use in phytoremediation of waste products of the textile-dye industry and as an hyperaccumulator and phytoremediator of chromium (Adki et al., 2012; 2013). It is also recommended for the revegetation of mined bauxitic soils and the rehabilitation of degraded arid habitats (Le Houerou, 1976; Howard, 1991).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage
• Invertebrate food

Environmental

• Amenity
• Boundary, barrier or support
• Revegetation
• Soil improvement
• Wildlife habitat

General

• Botanical garden/zoo
• Ritual uses
• Sociocultural value

Human food and beverage

• Beverage base
• Vegetable

Materials

• Cosmetics
• Dyestuffs
• Miscellaneous materials
• Wood/timber

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore
• Veterinary

Ornamental

• garden plant

Wood Products

Furniture

Woodware

• Wood carvings

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Control

Biological control

Cochineal (Dactylopius spp.) and cactoblast (Cactoblastis spp.) insect species have been used as biological control agents for N. cochenillifera (ISSG, 2017). Cactoblastis cactorum, which was introduced as a biological agent for cacti in Australia, Africa and the Caribbean, is also reported as a threat to native cacti of Central and North America (Zimmermann et al., 2000).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

More detailed information about the species impacts on invaded habitats and other species is needed.

References

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Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

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Contributors

05/03/17 Original text by:

Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, USA

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