Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Principal Source
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth
Preferred Common Name
- sprangletop
Other Scientific Names
- Atropis carinata Griseb.
- Brizopyrum uninervium (J.Presl) E.Fourn.
- Bromus polystachios Forssk.
- Centotheca malabarica (L.) Merr.
- Cynodon fascicularis (Lam.) Raspail
- Diachroa procumbens (Muhl.) Nutt.
- Digitaria malabarica (L.) Roem. & Schult.
- Diplachne acuminata Nash
- Diplachne amboensis Roiv.
- Diplachne capensis (Nees) Nees
- Diplachne carinata (Griseb.) Hack. ex Kurtz
- Diplachne fascicularis (Lam.) P.Beauv.
- Diplachne fusca (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.
- Diplachne imbricata (Thurb.) Scribn.
- Diplachne indica (Retz.) Spreng.
- Diplachne livida Nees
- Diplachne malabarica (L.) Merr.
- Diplachne maritima E.P.Bicknell
- Diplachne muelleri Benth.
- Diplachne pallida Hack.
- Diplachne parviflora (R.Br.) Benth.
- Diplachne polystachya (Forssk.) Backer
- Diplachne procumbens Arechav.
- Diplachne reptatrix (L.) Druce
- Diplachne tarapacana Phil.
- Diplachne tracyi Vasey
- Diplachne uninervia (J.Presl) Parodi
- Diplachne verticillata Nees & Meyen
- Diplachne virens (Nees) Parodi
- Diplachne wahlbergii Roiv.
- Eragrostis procera (Roxb.) Steud.
- Eragrostis uninervia (J.Presl) Steud.
- Festuca brownii F.Muell.
- Festuca clandestina Muhl.
- Festuca digitata Brouss. ex Hornem.
- Festuca fascicularis Lam.
- Festuca fusca L.
- Festuca indica Retz.
- Festuca multiflora Walter
- Festuca polystachya Michx.
- Festuca reptatrix L.
- Festuca texana Steud.
- Festuca thouinii Steud.
- Hemigymnia malabarica (L.) Henrard
- Leptochloa acuminata (Nash) Mohlenbr.
- Leptochloa contracta (Retz.) Blatt. & McCann
- Leptochloa fascicularis (Lam.) A.Gray
- Leptochloa ginae Maire
- Leptochloa imbricata Thurb.
- Leptochloa malabarica (L.) Veldkamp
- Leptochloa muelleri (Benth.) Stace
- Leptochloa neuroglossa Peter
- Leptochloa polystachya (Michx.) Kunth
- Leptochloa tracyi (Vasey) Beal
- Leptochloa uninervia (J.Presl) Hitchc. & Chase
- Leptochloa virletii E.Fourn.
- Megastachya uninervia J.Presl
- Ottochloa malabarica (L.) Dandy
- Panicum malabaricum (L.) Merr.
- Poa contracta Retz.
- Poa fusca (L.) Desf.
- Poa malabarica L.
- Poa procera Roxb.
- Poa uninervia (J.Presl) Kunth
- Puccinellia carinata (Griseb.) Ponert
- Rabdochloa imbricata (Thurb.) Kuntze
- Syntherisma malabarica (L.) Sw. ex Roem. & Schult.
- Tridens capensis Nees
- Tridens duartei Catasús
- Tridens veralensis Catasús
- Tridens virens Nees
- Triodia ambigua R.Br.
- Triodia capensis (Nees) T.Durand & Schinz
- Triodia formosana Honda
- Triodia livida (Nees) T.Durand & Schinz
- Triodia parviflora R.Br.
- Uralepis alba Steud.
- Uralepis anderssonii Aresch.
- Uralepis capensis (Nees) Kunth
- Uralepis composita Buckley
- Uralepis drummondii Steud.
- Uralepis fusca (L.) Steud.
- Uralepis livida (Nees) Steud.
- Uralepis verticillata (Nees & Meyen) Steud.
- Uralepis virens (Nees) Kunth
International Common Names
- English: bearded sprangletop; beetle grass; brown beetle grass; littoral sprangletop; Malabar sprangletop; Mexican sprangletop; sprangletop; swamp grass
- Spanish: paja gris
- Chinese: shuang fu cao
Local Common Names
- Australia: diplanchne
- India: chamapullu
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca is a perennial weed with a global distribution. It is an aggressive species showing a competitive advantage in many situations due to its tolerance of saline and alkaline soils and its likely ability to fix nitrogen. It is commonly a serious weed of rice in many countries. It is recorded as invasive in Cuba, Hawaii and in the Chagos Archipelago (as L. fusca subsp. uninervia) and has been the subject of an ‘eradication action’ in Europe.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Cyperales
- Family: Poaceae
- Genus: Leptochloa
- Species: Leptochloa fusca
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca is the latest of a very large number of names applied to this species. Originally known as Festuca fusca by Linnaeus, it has been included in Poa, Digitaria and numerous other genera, including Diplachne Peterson et al. (2012). Snow et al. (2018) make a strong case for use of the name Diplachne fusca and this is now used by USDA-ARS (2018), while most other authorities including The Plant List (2013) and USDA-NRCS (2018) continue to use Leptochloa fusca.
The taxonomy of L. fusca is still uncertain and many botanical sources including The Plant List (2013), USDA-ARS (2018), WCSP (2018) and Missouri Botanical Garden (2018), recognize three subspecies: fascicularis, muelleri and uninervia, in addition to subsp. fusca, with differing distributions as described by Peterson et al. (2012) and Snow et al. (2018). These are all, at times, referred to as full species. The differing distributions are indicated to some degree in the distribution table, but for most purposes, the group is treated as a single species throughout this datasheet.
Description
Top of pagePerennial, loosely tufted to rhizomatous. Culms erect or geniculate and rooting from lower nodes, up to 100 cm or more tall. Leaf sheaths glabrous; leaf blades tough, usually involute, 5-30(-50) × 0.15-0.3(-0.6) cm, adaxial surface scabrid, abaxial surface subglabrous; ligule 3-12 mm, acute. Inflorescence 15-25 cm, scabrid; racemes 3-28, indistinctly unilateral, 4-20 cm, straight, ascending or spreading, spikelets usually distant. Spikelets glaucous-green, subterete, 6-14 mm, florets 5-12; glumes keeled; lower glume lanceolate, 2-3 mm, acute; upper glume narrowly oblong, 3-4 mm, acute or mucronate; lemmas narrowly oblong, dorsally sub-rounded, lowest 4-5 mm, lower lateral veins pilose, entire or 2-dentate, midvein often produced into a short 0.3-1.6 mm awn; palea ciliolate along upper keels. Callus laterally pilose. Anthers 0.5-0.75(-2.5) mm. Caryopsis elliptic-oblong, 1.5-2.5 mm, dorso-ventrally flattened (AusGrass2, 2015; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
The subspecies are separated as follows (Snow et al., 2018):
L. fusca subsp. muelleri: lemmas flat, relatively broad, to 2.0 mm wide; panicles narrow, mostly less than 5 cm wide; panicle branches generally steeply erect, often flexuous near tips; hairs on lateral nerves of lemma sericeous to velutinous, often densely so and typically becoming divaricate with age; lemma apices mostly broadly acute, awnless or sometimes mucronate; Australian interior.
L. fusca subsp. uninervia: lemma apices obtuse to truncate, usually notched and often mucronate; lemmas often dark green or lead colored; spikelets relatively short, 5–10 mm, anthers usually less than 0.7 mm; rachilla rarely visible during anthesis; mostly New World tropics.
L. fusca subsp. fusca: lemma apices various, obtuse to acute or acuminate, notched or not; lemmas of various colors; spikelets 6–14 mm; anthers usually 0.5–2.7 mm; mostly Old World, southern South America, introduced into North America.
L. fusca subsp. fascicularis: lemmas slightly keeled, relatively narrow, mostly less than 1.5 mm wide; panicles somewhat broad, particularly at base, to 22 cm wide; panicle branches somewhat erect to reflexed, the branches not flexuous near tips; hairs on lateral nerves of sericeous, rarely densely so, typically remaining more or less appressed; lemma apices acute to acuminate, awnless or with awns to 3.5 mm long; mostly New World.
Plant Type
Top of pageBiennial
Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Distribution
Top of pageThe distribution indicated in the distribution table is mostly for Leptochloa fusca in the broad sense. Each of the main subspecies, however, has a more restricted distribution which is indicated where the information is readily available (AusGrass2, 2015; WCSP, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
A brief summary of native ranges for subspecies is as follows: L. fusca subsp. fusca is a polymorphic palaeotropical taxon native to Africa, Asia and Australasia; L. fusca subsp. muelleri is apparently restricted to Australia, known from much of the interior portions of eastern Australia, particularly the Northern Territory; L. fusca subsp. uninervia is native to and widespread in the Americas, from southern USA southwards; and L. fusca subsp. fascicularis is native almost throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the New World (Peterson et al., 2012; USDA-ARS, 2018).
L. fusca has been introduced to Canada, Hawaii, the Chagos archipelago, Maldives, Midway Atoll, Australia and parts of Europe and Asia. In Spain, L. fusca subsp. uninervia and L. fusca subsp. fascicularis were found to be widely distributed in Valencia, increasing from a frequency of 5.3% in 2008 to 20.1% in 2010. In the West Indies, L. fusca subsp. uninervia is listed as introduced and invasive in Cuba while L. fusca subsp. fusca is listed as introduced and naturalized in St Lucia (Oviedo and Gonzalez-Oliva, 2015; Graveson, 2016).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Angola | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Botswana | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Burundi | Present | Native | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Egypt | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Eswatini | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Kenya | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Lesotho | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Libya | Present | Introduced | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Madagascar | Present | Native | |||||
Malawi | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Morocco | Present | Native | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Namibia | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | |||||
Senegal | Present | Native | |||||
Somalia | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
South Africa | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Sudan | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Native | Ssp. fusca | ||||
Uganda | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Zambia | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Chagos Archipelago | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Ssp. uninervia | |||
Cambodia | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Native | Ssp. fusca | ||||
-Anhui | Present | Native | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Native | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Native | |||||
-Hebei | Present | Native | |||||
-Henan | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Native | |||||
-Liaoning | Present | Native | |||||
-Shandong | Present | Native | |||||
-Shanghai | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as Diplachne fusca | |||
-Yunnan | Present | Native | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
-Kerala | Present | ||||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | Newly recorded | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
-Java | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Iraq | Present | Native | |||||
Israel | Present | Introduced | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Japan | Present | ||||||
Kuwait | Present | Native | |||||
Laos | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Maldives | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Diplachne fusca | |||
Myanmar | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | 1986 | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Palestine | Present | Introduced | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Philippines | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Qatar | Present | Native | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | subsp. uninervia | |||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Turkey | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca subsp. fusca | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | Diplachne fusca and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Cyprus | Present | Introduced | Diplachne fusca | ||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
France | Present | Introduced | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | |||||
Greece | Present | Introduced | Diplachne fusca | ||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Poland | Present | Introduced | Ssp. fascicularis | ||||
Portugal | Present | Introduced | Ssp. fascicularis | ||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | Invasive | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | |||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | subsp. uninervia | |||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | Listed as Diplachne fusca in England and Great Britain | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | Ssp. fascicularis | ||||
Bahamas | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Belize | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Bonaire | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | 1988 | ||||
-British Columbia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ontario | Present | Introduced | Both L. fusca and L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as introduced | ||||
-Quebec | Present | Introduced | Both L. fusca and L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as introduced | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Cuba | Present | ||||||
Curaçao | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Haiti | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Honduras | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Martinique | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Mexico | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | subsp. fusca. naturalized | ||||
Turks and Caicos Islands | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis | ||||
United States | Present | Native | |||||
-Alabama | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Alaska | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Arizona | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Arkansas | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-California | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Colorado | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Connecticut | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Delaware | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-District of Columbia | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Florida | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Georgia | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | L. fusca subsp. uninervia | |||
-Idaho | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Illinois | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Indiana | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Iowa | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Kansas | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Kentucky | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Maine | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Maryland | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Michigan | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Minnesota | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Mississippi | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Missouri | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Montana | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Nebraska | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Nevada | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-New Hampshire | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-New Jersey | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-New Mexico | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-New York | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-North Dakota | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Ohio | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Oregon | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Rhode Island | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-South Carolina | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-South Dakota | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Tennessee | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Texas | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Utah | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Vermont | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Virginia | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Washington | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-West Virginia | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
-Wisconsin | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis and L. fusca subsp. uninervia are listed as native | ||||
-Wyoming | Present | Native | L. fusca , L. fusca subsp. fascicularis are listed as native | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1988 | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | subsp. uninervia | |||
-Northern Territory | Present | Native | Ssp. fusca (uninervis) | ||||
-Queensland | Present | ||||||
-South Australia | Present | ||||||
-Tasmania | Present | Introduced | Ssp. uninervis | ||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | subsp. uninervia | |||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | SSp. fusca | ||||
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | subsp. uninervia | |||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Brazil | Present | Native | Ssp. uninervia, fascicularis | ||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca | ||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca | ||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca | ||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | Diplachne fusca | ||||
Chile | Present | Native | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Colombia | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Peru | Present | Native | subsp. uninervia | ||||
Uruguay | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia | ||||
Venezuela | Present | Native | subsp. fascicularis and subsp. uninervia |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca subsp. uninervia and subsp. fascicularis are apparently recent introductions to Spain, where they were first recorded in 1990 (GBIF, 2014). In Australia, L. fusca subsp. uninervis was first recognized in 1999 (Snow and Simon, 1999). In Italy, L. fusca subsp. fascicularis was first reported in 2000 and was apparently introduced from Spain (Romani and Tabacchi, 2000). In the Canary islands, L. fusca subsp. uninervia was first recorded in a plant nursery in Gran Canaria in 2011 and it is spreading rapidly (Verloove, 2013). In St. Lucia, L. fusca subsp. fusca was apparently introduced as a seed contaminant on heavy equipment imported to be used at Praslin (Graveson, 2016).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Australia | 1999 | No | No | Snow and Simon (1999) | Ssp. uninervia | |||
Iran | 2000 | No | No | Hamzeh'ee (2000) | ||||
Italy | Spain | 2000 | Yes | No | Romani and Tabacchi (2000) | |||
Spain | 1990 | Yes | No | GBIF (2014) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of new introduction of L. fusca is very high mainly due to its widespread distribution and its behaviour as an agricultural and environmental weed. As a major weed of rice with a sizeable seed, L. fusca may be an occasional contaminant of unmilled rice and hence spread with imports of rice.
Habitat
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca is a plant of shallow water, marshes and sometimes brackish ground (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). It is a salt-tolerant species and is known to excrete salt through glands on the leaves. It can also be found growing in and beside shallow standing water and in boggy, marshy, alluvial and black peaty soils and in wet sand, 0–1280 m above sea level. It is also described as a major weed of irrigation channels. In Spain, L. fusca subsp. uninervia is normally found around the edge of fields, while L. fusca subsp. fascicularis is found in the interior of flooded rice fields (Osca, 2013).
L. fusca has a relatively low tolerance to saline conditions at the seedling stage but tolerance increases during subsequent growth (Mahmood et al., 1995) and non-seedlings are tolerant of salinity, sodicity and alkalinity. Ola et al. (2012) observed significantly reduced growth at 100 mM NaCl but many other functions were normal and the plant was not severely damaged by 300 mM NaCl. In Egypt, fresh and dry weights increased with concentration of seawater between 12.5 and 25.0% (Ashour et al., 1997). Tolerance to NaCl appears to be associated with leaf extrusion and root efflux of both Na+ and Cl-.
Ashok et al. (1996) reported that L. fusca showed remarkable tolerance to prolonged water stagnation of 30 days, due to enhanced root aerenchyma development and root growth, which enabled physiological processes and nutrient uptake to continue.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Brackish | Inland saline areas | Principal habitat | ||
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | ||
Littoral | Mud flats | Secondary/tolerated habitat | ||
Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Principal habitat |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca is a major weed of rice (Oryza sativa) in a number of countries including USA, Cuba, Spain, India and China (Tian et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2018). It is also problematic in lucerne/alfalfa (Medicago sativa), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), turf (Poaceae), onion (Allium cepa) and peppers (Capsicum annuum) (Martínez et al., 2003).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Allium cepa (onion) | Liliaceae | Main | |
Capsicum (peppers) | Solanaceae | Main | |
Lycopersicon esculentum | Solanaceae | Other | |
Medicago sativa (lucerne) | Fabaceae | Wild host | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for Leptochloa fusca is 2n=20. It is described as a polymorphic species highly variable in habit, height and robustness (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
Reproductive Biology
Fresh seeds of L. fusca are dormant and it has been suggested that as a semi-aquatic species, it requires flooding for both dormancy loss and germination (Baskin et al.; 1999). Osca et al. (2011) found that seeds subjected to saturated or flooded soils had faster germination and development, resulting in heavier and bigger plants; however, Leptochloa fusca subsp. fascicularis and Leptochloa fusca subsp. uninervia do not germinate and emerge if the water level is maintained continuously above 10 cm (Osca et al., 2011), or when exposed to flooding (Mahmood, 1997). Similar germination rates have been reported for experiments performed in light and dark conditions. Optimum germination temperatures are in the range 25-35°C (Mahmood, 1997). Salinity at 0.2% increased germination slightly, although higher salinity levels decreased germination. Wet conditions and low temperatures were effective for inducing germination of seeds which had been stored under dry, room temperatures for four months.
Physiology and Phenology
L. fusca is a C4 plant (Yusuf and Malik, 1984). In Spain, L. fusca subsp. fascicularis matures by June, thus allowing seeds to drop long before rice harvest (Osca, 2013). In China, L. fusca has been reported flowering and fruiting from June to September (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). In Australia, flowers often occur after rains (AusGrass2, 2015). In Nicaragua, flowers and fruits have been observed in June (Flora of Nicaragua, 2018). In India, L. fusca has been reported flowering and fruiting from September to December (India Biodiversity Portal, 2018).
Longevity
L. fusca is a perennial plant with a life span of two or more years (Ecocrop, 2014). The subspecies fascicularis and uninervia are described as an annual or biennial species (USDA-NRCS, 2018).
Nutrition
In India, L. fusca subsp. fusca responded significantly to nitrogen (Rao et al., 2001) and to phosphorus (Abdullah et al., 2000). This species is able to grow well on infertile soils mostly due to its association with nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Associations
In South Africa, Leptochloa species often grow with Eragrostis bicolor (Janecke et al., 2003) and Acacia xanthophloea (Götze et al., 2003). L. fusca also grows associated with nitrogen-fixing Azoarcus bacteria (Reinhold-Hurek et al., 1993b; Reinhold-Hurek and Hurek, 1998a; James, 2000). Field and greenhouse studies have shown that L. fusca may fix up to 26% of its nitrogen content (Malik et al., 1987).
Environmental Requirements
L. fusca is a plant of tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate climates that thrives in moist and sunny conditions. It grows best in areas with mean annual temperature ranging from 15°C to 30°C (but can tolerate 9°C – 40°C) and mean annual rainfall ranging from 250 mm to 1000 mm (100 mm – 2900 mm). It is adapted to grow in a wide range of soil types including sandy, loamy, clay and infertile soils with pH in the range 5 – 8 (tolerating 3.1 – 9.9). The plant is tolerant to drought and waterlogged conditions (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Tolerated | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tolerated | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
B - Dry (arid and semi-arid) | Tolerated | < 860mm precipitation annually | |
BSk - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation, mid altitude, average temp. < 18°C | |
BW - Desert climate | Tolerated | < 430mm annual precipitation |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
55 | 45 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 15 | 30 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 9 | |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 40 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 100 | 2900 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
- very acid
- very alkaline
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- shallow
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageLeptochloafusca spreads predominantly by seed. Seeds are easily dispersed by water as the plants often grow in ditches and drains, on the edges of irrigation channels and along the margins of permanent rivers (Osca, 2013; Queensland Government, 2018). Seeds can be dispersed as contaminant in crop and pasture seeds, soil and machinery (Taberner et al. 2011).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Weed of agricultural lands | Yes | Yes | Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018) |
Disturbance | Often naturalized in open grounds and disturbed places | Yes | Yes | PIER (2018) |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Seeds escape from cultivation | Yes | PIER (2018) | |
Forage | Yes | Yes | ||
Interconnected waterways | Seeds dispersed by water | Yes | Osca (2013) | |
Internet sales | Yes | Yes | ||
Seed trade | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Floating vegetation and debris | Yes | |||
Land vehicles | Yes | |||
Machinery and equipment | Yes | |||
Mulch, straw, baskets and sod | Yes | |||
Water | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca is an important weed of rice fields (Osca, 2013). In India, this species was the most dominant weed species, occurring in approximately 85% of the sites surveyed (Vidya et al., 2004). It is also listed as a major weed of rice in Cuba (Colon and Antigua, 1989), Australia (McIntyre et al., 1989), South Korea (Kang and Shim, 2002), Senegal (Haefele et al., 2000), Spain (Osca, 2013) and USA (Carey et al., 1994). It is also one of the most common weeds in onion and tomato-green pepper plantations in Venezuela (Martínez et al., 2003).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca is an environmental weed that often can be found invading brackish water, salt marshes, irrigation ditches, riverbanks and along disturbed areas along roadsides and pastures (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; PIER, 2018; USDA-NRCS, 2018). In Australia, Leptochloa fusca subsp. uninervia is regarded as an environmental weed threatening brackish, saline and freshwater wetlands (Queensland Government, 2018). Once established in these habitats it forms dense stands that outcompete native grasses, sedges and other wetland plants, replacing some species and affecting populations of waterbirds and other wildlife (Queensland Government, 2018). In Hawaii, it is also listed as an invasive species abundant around the margins of brackish water ponds, wet, disturbed places such as along irrigation ditches and in shallow, standing water (Wagner et al., 1999; PIER, 2018).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Long lived
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Modification of fire regime
- Modification of hydrology
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageLeptochloa fusca is often planted for forage, green fodder and dry matter yields (Verma and Raghuwanshi, 2004). In Pakistan, it is cultivated on saline alkaline soil as a source of biomass. It has been also used for improvement of degraded and salt-affected soils (Akhter et al., 2004; Ahmad, 2010). Tawfik et al. (2013) suggested the potential of L. fusca as a biofuel in Egypt.
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Land reclamation
- Soil improvement
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageIn Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018), Leptochloa chinensis and Leptochloa panicea are distinguished from Leptochloa fusca by being an annual plant, with smaller, compressed spikelets, up to 4 mm long and with awnless lemmas.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures
Gealy et al. (2013) recorded that the allelopathic rice cultivars PI 312777 and Taichung Native 1 (TN 1) provide significant suppression of Leptochloa fusca subsp. fascicularis.
Physical/Mechanical Control
In Colombia, land levelling is recommended for control of L. fusca subsp. fascicularis (Antigua, 1993).
Movement Control
Machinery should be washed before moving between sites to reduce the risk of spreading Leptochloa fusca.
Chemical Control
Osca (2013) noted that L. fusca is susceptible to molinate and cyhalofop-butyl, and partially susceptible to propanil.
Other herbicides reported effective in rice, mainly against L. fusca subsp. fascicularis, include thiobencarb and fenoxaprop + bentazone (Smith, 1988), granular chlomazone (Schulteis and Heier, 2003), dithiopyr, metolachlor, metolachlor + atrazine, pendimethalin and oxadiazon (McCarty et al., 1995). In addition, sequential applications of quinclorac and fenoxaprop, or propanil and sethoxydim (Stauber et al., 1991). In Cuba, pre-emergence thiobencarb or oxadiazon, and post-emergence propanil + thiobencarb may be used (Antigua, 1993). Isoxaben and atrazine treatments have been found to provide poor or inconsistent control (McCarty et al., 1995).
Glufosinate is effective in glufosinate-resistant (‘Liberty’) rice (Wheeler et al., 1998).
Grichar (2011) observes nicosulfuron and fenoxaprop providing effective control of L. fusca subsp. fascicularis in turf (Poaceae). In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fields in Peru, metribuzin and and pendimethaline were effective (Cerna Bazan and Rojas Vargas, 1979); and in lucerne/alfalfa (Medicago sativa), prodiamine (Fenderson et al., 1987).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageMore research is needed on the to clarify the possibility of different germination behaviours and ecological requirements of the various subspecies.
References
Top of pageAhmad F, 2010. Leptochloa Fusca cultivation for utilization of salt-affected soil and water resources in Cholistan desert. Rev. Soc. Nat, 22, 141-149.
AusGrass2, 2014. Diplachne fusca. http://ausgrass2.myspecies.info/node/1264
Ecocrop, 2014. Leptochloa fusca. FAO. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=7239
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora Zambesiaca, 2014. Flora Zambesiaca, Kew Databases. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanical Gardens Kew. http://apps.kew.org/efloras/fz/families.htm
GBIF, 2014. GBIF data portal. Copenhagen, Denmark: Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). http://data.gbif.org
ITIS, 2014. Integrated Taxonomic Information System. http://www.itis.gov
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Prota4U, 2013. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Rao GG, Nayak AK, Chinchmalatpure AR, Babu VR, 2001. Growth and yield of some forage grasses grown on salt affected black soils. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities. 26: 2, 195-197
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
University of Michigan Herbarium, 2014. Diplachne fusca. University of Michigan. http://michiganflora.net/species.aspx?id=2143
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Verloove, F, 2013. New xenophytes from Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), with emphasis on naturalized and (potentially) invasive species. In: Collectanea Botanica , 32. 59-82.
Distribution References
CABI, 2020. CABI Distribution Database: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
GBIF, 2014. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
GRIIS, 2018. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species., http://www.griis.org/
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
University of Michigan Herbarium, 2014. Diplachne fusca., University of Michigan. http://michiganflora.net/species.aspx?id=2143
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Valls JFM, 2015. Leptochloa fusca. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB112160
Verloove F, 2013. New xenophytes from Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), with emphasis on naturalized and (potentially) invasive species. In: Collectanea Botanica, 32 59-82.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page07/08/18 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
29/03/17 Original text by:
Chris Parker, Consultant, UK
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