Invasive Species Compendium

Detailed coverage of invasive species threatening livelihoods and the environment worldwide

Datasheet

Tradescantia spathacea
(boat lily)

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Datasheet

Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily)

Index

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 25 November 2019
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Invasive Species
  • Host Plant
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Tradescantia spathacea
  • Preferred Common Name
  • boat lily
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •   Kingdom: Plantae
  •     Phylum: Spermatophyta
  •       Subphylum: Angiospermae
  •         Class: Monocotyledonae
  • Summary of Invasiveness

  • T. spathacea is a succulent herb commercially grown for bedding, rock gardens, and tropical effects, but classified in the Global Compendium of Weeds as an invasive species and an environmental weed (Ran...

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Pictures

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PictureTitleCaptionCopyright
Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Old macadamia nut orchards Waiehu, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2007.
TitleHabit
CaptionTradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Old macadamia nut orchards Waiehu, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2007.
Copyright©Forest & Kim Starr-2007 - CC BY 3.0
Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Old macadamia nut orchards Waiehu, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2007.
HabitTradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Old macadamia nut orchards Waiehu, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February 2007.©Forest & Kim Starr-2007 - CC BY 3.0
Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September 2007
TitleHabit
CaptionTradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September 2007
Copyright©Forest & Kim Starr-2007 - CC BY 3.0
Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September 2007
HabitTradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); habit. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September 2007©Forest & Kim Starr-2007 - CC BY 3.0
Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); flowers. Commodore Ave Sand Island, Midway Atoll. June, 2008.
TitleFlowers
CaptionTradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); flowers. Commodore Ave Sand Island, Midway Atoll. June, 2008.
Copyright©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 3.0
Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); flowers. Commodore Ave Sand Island, Midway Atoll. June, 2008.
FlowersTradescantia spathacea (boat lily, oyster plant, rhoeo); flowers. Commodore Ave Sand Island, Midway Atoll. June, 2008.©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Tradescantia spathacea Sw., 1788

Preferred Common Name

  • boat lily

Other Scientific Names

  • Ephemerum bicolor Moench
  • Rhoeo discolor (L'Hér.) Hance
  • Rhoeo spathacea (Sw.) Stearn
  • Rhoeo spathacea f. concolor (Baker) Stehlé
  • Rhoeo spathacea f. variegata (Hook.) Stehlé
  • Tradescantia discolor L'Hér.
  • Tradescantia discolor var. concolor Baker
  • Tradescantia discolor var. variegata Hook.
  • Tradescantia versicolor Salisb.

International Common Names

  • English: Moses-in-a-boat; Moses-in-the cradle; oyster plant
  • Spanish: Barca de San Pedro; maguey morado
  • French: moïse dans les jonc; plante huitre; rhoé
  • Chinese: zi bei wan nian qing

Local Common Names

  • Australia: rhoeo; three men in a boat
  • Cook Islands: iri; riri mangio; riri vareau
  • Cuba: cordobán
  • Ecuador/Galapagos Islands: Barquito de San Pedro
  • Guatemala: cordoban; moises; pluma de venus
  • Jamaica: Moses-in-the-bulrushes
  • Lesser Antilles: Canoa di San Pedro; gros curage; grosse herbe grasee; Indján den boto; ladies in a boat
  • Mexico: Chaksam morado
  • Niue: laupapaki; talotalo
  • Palau: nobesos
  • Puerto Rico: sanguinaria
  • Tonga: faina; faina fa‘itoka; faina kula
  • USA/Hawaii: Moses in the basket

Summary of Invasiveness

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T. spathacea is a succulent herb commercially grown for bedding, rock gardens, and tropical effects, but classified in the Global Compendium of Weeds as an invasive species and an environmental weed (Randall, 2012). This species has escaped into natural areas from gardens and yards where it has been planted as an ornamental (ISSG, 2012; PIER, 2012). T. spathacea spreads by seeds, which are dispersed by wind and it also grows from cuttings and plant fragments (Langeland and Burks, 2008). Once established, it is able to grow forming dense groundcover on the forest floor preventing the germination and establishment of native plants (ISSG, 2012). T. spathacea is listed as an invasive species Category II in Florida (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011), and it is also considered invasive in Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (González-Torres et al., 2012; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012) and the Pacific Islands.

Taxonomic Tree

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  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Plantae
  •         Phylum: Spermatophyta
  •             Subphylum: Angiospermae
  •                 Class: Monocotyledonae
  •                     Order: Commelinales
  •                         Family: Commelinaceae
  •                             Genus: Tradescantia
  •                                 Species: Tradescantia spathacea

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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The family Commelinaceae includes 40 genera and 652 species widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions (Stevens, 2012). Member of this family are herbs with relatively soft and fleshy leaves. Commelinaceae is a family of plants diverse in both the Old World tropics and the New World tropics, with some genera distributed in both (Faden, 1983; Evans et al., 2003). The species within this family exhibit remarkable morphological variation, particularly in floral and inflorescence traits (Evans et al., 2000; Faden, 2000). Studies suggest that this family has radiated extensively in response to non-nectar seeking pollinators with changes in floral symmetry, stamen number, structure, and position, and inflorescence size and arrangement (Faden, 2000; Evans et al., 2003).

The genus Tradescantia is native to the New World tropics and includes about 70 species distributed from Canada to northern Argentina (USDA-ARS, 2012). Many species within this genus are valuable plants used as ornamentals and houseplants. Most of the cultivars commercialized in nurseries and commonly grown in garden are of complex hybrid origin, derived from crosses between natural species (Anderson and Hubricht, 1938).

Description

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Erect perennial sub-succulent herb with short stout erect stems up to 20 cm tall, often clustered and forming large colonies. Leaves imbricate, crowded, linear-lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, 20 - 35 cm long, mostly 3 - 5 cm broad, acuminate at the apex, scarcely narrowed at base above the sheath, usually dark green above, reddish-purple beneath. Inflorescences axillary; peduncles 2 - 4.5 cm long, simple or branched; bracts deeply boat-shaped, broadly ovate, 2 - 4.5 cm long, 2.5 - 5 cm broad. Flowers numerous, small, white, clustered within a folded, boat shaped bract (spathe) 3 - 4 cm long, short-stalked from leaf axils; petals 3, white, broadly ovate, stamens 6 with hairy filaments. Fruit capsular, with a seed per locule; seeds oblong-ellipsoid with linear hilum (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005; Richard and Ramey, 2007).

Plant Type

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Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Succulent
Vegetatively propagated

Distribution

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T. spathacea is native to southern Mexico and Central America (Guatemala and Belize; Govaerts, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2012). It has been introduced as an ornamental and houseplant in many tropical regions including China, Japan, Africa, southeast Asia (Govaerts, 2012), USA (Florida, Louisiana, and Hawaii; USDA-ARS, 2012), the West Indies (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012), Australia (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011), and the Pacific islands (PIER, 2012).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Dec 2021
Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last Reported Origin First Reported Invasive Reference Notes

Africa

EthiopiaPresentIntroduced
GambiaPresentIntroduced
KenyaPresentIntroduced
MalawiPresentIntroduced
RéunionPresentIntroducedInvasive
SeychellesPresentIntroduced
South AfricaPresent, LocalizedIntroducedAn emerging weed in Limpopo and KwaZulu Natal
TanzaniaPresentIntroduced
UgandaPresentIntroduced
ZambiaPresentIntroduced

Asia

ChinaPresentIntroducedInvasive
Cocos IslandsPresentIntroduced
Hong KongPresentIntroducedCultivated
JapanPresentIntroducedOgasawara-shoto
PhilippinesPresentIntroduced
SingaporePresentIntroduced

North America

Antigua and BarbudaPresentIntroduced
BahamasPresentIntroducedReported by N.L. Britton & C.F. Millspaugh in 1920
BarbadosPresentIntroduced
BelizePresentNative
British Virgin IslandsPresentIntroducedGuana and Virgin Gorda
Costa RicaPresentIntroducedCultivated as ornamental; Original citation: INBio (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad) (1998)
CubaPresentIntroducedInvasiveReported by I. Urban in Symbolae Antillanae (1903-1911)
Dominican RepublicPresentIntroducedReported by I. Urban in Symbolae Antillanae (1903-1911)
GrenadaPresentIntroduced
GuadeloupePresentIntroducedReported by I. Urban in Symbolae Antillanae (1903-1911)
GuatemalaPresentNative
HaitiPresentIntroducedReported by I. Urban in Symbolae Antillanae (1903-1911)
HondurasPresentIntroducedCultivated as ornamental
JamaicaPresentIntroduced
MartiniquePresentIntroducedReported by I. Urban in Symbolae Antillanae (1903-1911)
MexicoPresentNativeSoutheast Mexico (Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco and Yucatan)
Netherlands AntillesPresentIntroducedSaba
NicaraguaPresentIntroducedCultivated
Puerto RicoPresentIntroducedInvasiveReported by D. Bello in Yabucoa, Mayagüez and Rincón in 1883
Saint LuciaPresentIntroducedEscaped ornamental. Present in dry rocky hills in the north and a danger to the Pitons
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesPresentIntroducedReported by I. Urban in Symbolae Antillanae (1903-1911)
Trinidad and TobagoPresentIntroduced
U.S. Virgin IslandsPresentIntroducedInvasiveSt. Croix, St John, and St Thomas. Reported by I. Urban in Symbolae Antillanae (1903-1911)
United StatesPresentPresent based on regional distribution.
-FloridaPresentIntroducedInvasiveCategory II invasive species
-HawaiiPresentIntroducedInvasive
-LouisianaPresentIntroduced

Oceania

American SamoaPresentIntroducedInvasiveEscaped from gardens
AustraliaPresentPresent based on regional distribution.
-Lord Howe IslandPresentIntroducedInvasive
-QueenslandPresentIntroducedInvasive
Christmas IslandPresentIntroduced
Cook IslandsPresentIntroducedInvasiveCultivated; Original citation: Space and Flynn (2002a)
Federated States of MicronesiaPresentIntroducedInvasiveCultivated
FijiPresentIntroducedInvasiveCultivated
French PolynesiaPresentIntroducedInvasiveCultivated
GuamPresentIntroduced
KiribatiPresentIntroducedGilbert and Line Islands
Marshall IslandsPresentIntroduced
NauruPresentIntroduced
New CaledoniaPresentIntroducedInvasive
New ZealandPresent
NiuePresentIntroducedInvasive
Northern Mariana IslandsPresentIntroduced
PalauPresentIntroducedInvasive
Papua New GuineaPresentIntroduced
SamoaPresentIntroducedInvasiveOriginal citation: Space and Flynn (2002b)
TongaPresentIntroducedInvasive
Wallis and FutunaPresentIntroducedCultivated

South America

EcuadorPresentPresent based on regional distribution.
-Galapagos IslandsPresentIntroducedSt. Cristobal and Santa Cruz Islands
PeruPresentIntroduced

History of Introduction and Spread

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T. spathacea was introduced into the West Indies as an ornamental and houseplant probably during the nineteenth century. By 1883, D. Bello reported this species for the island of Puerto Rico (Bello, 1883). Later, Ignaz Urban in his Symbolae Antillanae (IV: 147, 1903-1911) reported this species growing in gardens and forests for Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hispaniola, St. Thomas, St. Croix, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Vincent (Urban, 1905). In 1920, T. spathacea is reported for the Bahamas by N.L. Britton and C.F. Millspaugh (Britton and Milsspaugh, 1920).

T. spathacea was also introduced in Florida as an ornamental and by 1933 it was reported as naturalized in cultivated grounds and pinelands in peninsular Florida by J.K. Small (Small, 1933). Currently, this species is included in the Florida List of Invasive species as an invasive plant Category II, which are invasive plants that have increased in abundance or frequency but have not yet altered natural plant communities (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011).

T. spathacea was also introduced in the nineteenth century on islands in the Pacific, including Hawaii, Guam, Fiji, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Mariana Islands, and Micronesia (see distribution table for details; PIER, 2012). By 1924, it was reported as “naturalized” on American Samoa (Setchell, 1924) and later it was reported as “common and naturalized” on Tonga (Yuncker, 1959), Niue (Sykes, 1970), and Fiji (Smith, 1979). Currently, T. spathacea is considered an invasive species that is threatening ecosystems on the Pacific islands and regular monitoring is recommended wherever it is present (PIER, 2012).  

Risk of Introduction

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T. spathacea is widely commercialized in the nursery and landscape trade as an ornamental and houseplant (ISSG, 2012). In addition, T. spathacea can be dispersed by seeds, by cuttings and by plant fragments that rapidly colonize areas where it grows (Richard and Ramey, 2007). Seeds are dispersed by wind, facilitating long-distance invasions (Langeland and Burks, 2008). Consequently, the probability of this species invading and colonizing new habitats remains high.

Habitat

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T. spathacea is commonly used as an ornamental plant and has been planted in gardens and yards from where it has escaped. Currently, it can be found growing in the understory of coastal forests, shrublands, pinelands, hammocks, secondary forests, cultivated grounds, and disturbed areas from sea level to low elevations. In these habitats, T. spathacea grows forming a dense ground cover (Richard and Ramey, 2007; Langeland and Burks, 2008, ISSG, 2012). On islands in the Pacific, the species often grows on stone or coral walls and on rocky cliffs (Smith, 1979; PIER, 2012).

Habitat List

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CategorySub-CategoryHabitatPresenceStatus
Terrestrial ManagedCultivated / agricultural land Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial ManagedCultivated / agricultural land Present, no further details Natural
Terrestrial ManagedDisturbed areas Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial ManagedDisturbed areas Present, no further details Natural
Terrestrial ManagedRail / roadsides Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial ManagedRail / roadsides Present, no further details Natural
Terrestrial ManagedUrban / peri-urban areas Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial ManagedUrban / peri-urban areas Present, no further details Natural
Terrestrial ManagedUrban / peri-urban areas Present, no further details Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial Natural / Semi-naturalNatural forests Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial Natural / Semi-naturalNatural forests Present, no further details Natural
Terrestrial Natural / Semi-naturalScrub / shrublands Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial Natural / Semi-naturalScrub / shrublands Present, no further details Natural
LittoralCoastal areas Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
LittoralCoastal areas Present, no further details Natural

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

T. spathacea is a diploid species with 2n = 12 chromosomes. As in other diploid species, its karyotype is considered to consist of two genomes, which in the case of this species have been designated as α and β complexes (Golczyk and Joachimiak, 1999).

Reproductive Biology

Flowers in T. spathacea are hermaphroditic, small and white. Flowers are visited and pollinated by insects. The reproductive strategy in this species includes both cross-pollination, and self-pollination in the absence of pollinators (Zomlefer, 1983). 

Physiology and Phenology

T. spathacea produces flowers and fruits throughout the year in locations within and outside its native distribution range (Langeland and Burks, 2008; ISSG, 2012, PIER, 2012). 

Environmental Requirements

T. spathacea prefers to grow in tropical and subtropical areas with warm temperatures ranging from 14°C to 27°C (Langeland and Burks, 2008). It is a heat tolerant species, but it is easily damaged by frost and winter conditions. T. spathacea is able to grow in full sun to moderate shade in the floor of the understory. It is adapted to grow on a wide range of well-drained soil types including rocky soils, sand, and limestone bedrock (Smith, 1979; ISSG, 2012). It does not tolerate water logged soils. T. spathacea can be found growing as an epiphytic or semi-epiphytic plant on palm or tree trunks, rocky cliffs or other niches with essentially no soil (Smith, 1979). 

Climate

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ClimateStatusDescriptionRemark
Af - Tropical rainforest climate Preferred > 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate Preferred Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate Preferred < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer Tolerated Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter Tolerated Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)

Air Temperature

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Parameter Lower limit Upper limit
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) 35
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) 5

Rainfall

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ParameterLower limitUpper limitDescription
Mean annual rainfall5003500mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

  • free

Soil reaction

  • neutral

Soil texture

  • light
  • medium

Special soil tolerances

  • shallow

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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T. spathacea can be dispersed by seeds, cuttings, offshoots or root fragments. Seeds are dispersed by wind, and roots resprout easily when pulled up or broken (Morton, 1982; Richard and Ramey, 2007). Damaged plants and plant fragments can also resprout from the roots (Langeland and Burks, 2008).

Pathway Causes

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CauseNotesLong DistanceLocalReferences
Escape from confinement or garden escapeSeeds, cuttings, and discarded plants Yes Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (2011); PIER (2012)
Garden waste disposalSeeds, cuttings, and discarded plants Yes Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (2011); PIER (2012)
Internet salesSeeds and plants sold online Yes Yes
Medicinal useUsed in traditional medicine in Mexico and South East Asia Yes Yes Rosales-Reyes et al. (2008)
Nursery tradePlants used as ornamentals Yes Yes ISSG (2012)
Ornamental purposes Yes Yes Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (2011); PIER (2012)
Seed trade Yes Yes

Pathway Vectors

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VectorNotesLong DistanceLocalReferences
Debris and waste associated with human activitiesLeaves, cuttings and discarded plants from gardens and yards Yes ISSG (2012)
MailSold online Yes Yes
WindSeeds carried by wind Yes Yes Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (2011)

Impact Summary

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CategoryImpact
Economic/livelihood Positive and negative
Environment (generally) Negative
Human health Positive and negative

Environmental Impact

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T. spathacea is a successful invader that can escape from gardens and is able to colonize disturbed areas as well as natural forests. This species grows in the understory of the forest and once established, it is able to rapidly replace the native vegetation of this forest stratum. T. spathacea grows forming a dense ground cover and thickets preventing the germination and establishment of seedlings of native plants (Richard and Ramey, 2007; Langeland and Burks, 2008; ISSG, 2012). Floridata reports that ecological problems in Florida particularly occur in hardwood hammock forests.

Social Impact

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In humans, T. spathacea can cause stinging, itching, and rash from contact with the surface of leaves and sap or from contact with the astringent juice produced when leaves are bruised (Morton, 1982). The species can be poisonous in large quantities if swallowed. There are also reports of effects on pets, particularly dogs that have developed severe allergies. Ingestion of the plant may cause irritation of the lips, mouth, throat and abdominal pain in animals and humans (Morton, 1982).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness
  • Proved invasive outside its native range
  • Abundant in its native range
  • Highly adaptable to different environments
  • Is a habitat generalist
  • Pioneering in disturbed areas
  • Tolerant of shade
  • Highly mobile locally
  • Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
  • Fast growing
  • Has high reproductive potential
  • Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
  • Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
  • Modification of successional patterns
  • Monoculture formation
  • Negatively impacts human health
  • Reduced native biodiversity
  • Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
  • Causes allergic responses
  • Competition - monopolizing resources
  • Competition - shading
  • Competition - smothering
  • Competition - strangling
  • Competition (unspecified)
  • Induces hypersensitivity
  • Poisoning
  • Rapid growth
  • Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
  • Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

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T. spathacea is an economically important plant in the nursery and landscape trade. Several cultivars are extensively commercialized as ornamentals and houseplants in tropical and temperate regions (ISSG, 2012). It is used in traditional medicine in Mexico and southeast Asia. Flowers and leaves are used in traditional medicine to treat cancer, superficial mycoses, coughs, colds, and dysentery (Rosales-Reyes et al., 2008; Philippine Medicinal Plants, 2012).

Uses List

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Environmental

  • Agroforestry

General

  • Botanical garden/zoo

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

  • Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
  • Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

  • Potted plant
  • Propagation material
  • Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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T. spathacea can be easily distinguished from other Tradescantia species by its elongated leaves (green above, purple below) forming a sub-rosette and by having white petals.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

Plant cuttings should not be dumped anywhere as this is a frequent source of new weed infestations. The origin of new topsoil or fill should be checked as physical transportation of plant segments in soil is a major method of spread (ISSG, 2012).

Mechanical Control

Plants and smaller patches of T. spathacea may be hand pulled up and removed from treated areas, but all roots and plant fragments must be removed in order to avoid resprouts. 

Chemical Control

In Florida, experts have recommended foliar treatment with 3-10% triclopyr in water or oil applied to buds, or 2% glyphosate (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011).

References

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Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2005. Monocots and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 52:1-416. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/PRFlora/monocots/

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Adams CD, 1972. Flowering Plants of Jamaica. University of the West Indies, 267

Anderson E, Hubricht L, 1938. Hybridization in Tradescantia. III. The Evidence for Introgressive Hybridization. American Journal of Botany, 25(6):396-402

Bello D, 1883. [English title not available]. (Apuntes para la flora de Puerto Rico. Segunda parte. Monoclamídeas.) Anales de la Sociedad Española de Historia Natural, 12:103-130

Britton NL, Millspaugh CF, 1920. The Bahama Flora. New York, USA: NL Britton & CF Millspaugh

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation, unpaginated

Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore. National University of Singapore, Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, 273 pp

Correll DS, Correll HB, 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago. Vaduz, Germany: J. Cramer, 1692 pp

eFloras, 2013. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Evans TM, Faden RB, Simpson MG, Sytsma KJ, 2000. Phylogenetic relationships in the Commelinaceae: I. A cladistic analysis of morphological data. Systematic Botany, 25:668-691

Evans TM, Sytsma KJ, Faden RB, Givnish TJ, 2003. Phylogenetic relationships in the Commelinaceae: II. A cladistic analysis of rbcL sequences and morphology. Systematic Botany, 28:270-292

Faden RB, 1983. Phytogeography of African Commelinaceae. Bothalia, 14:553-557

Faden RB, 2000. Floral biology of Commelinaceae. In: Monocots: systematics and evolution [ed. by Wilson, K. L. \Morrison, D. A.]. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 309-318

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2011. [English title not available]. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP).) . http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011. Florida EPPC's 2011 Invasive Plant Species List. http://www.fleppc.org/list/11list.html

Fosberg FR, Sachet M-H, Oliver R, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesia 20: 1-2, 19-129

Golczyk H, Joachimiak A, 1999. Karyotype structure and interphase chromatin organization in Rhoeo spathacea (Sw.) Stearn (Commelinaceae). Acta Biologica Cracoviensia: Series Botanica, 41:143-150

González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A (eds), 2012. Invasive plants in Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba.) Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6:1-140

Govaerts R, 2012. World Checklist of Commelinaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 146 pp

INBio (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad), 1998. Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica (Manual of plants of Costa Rica). Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica: Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad, 125 pp

ISSG, 2012. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland . http://www.issg.org/database

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Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji., I Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 494 pp.

Space J C, Waterhouse B M, Newfield M, Bull C, 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. [UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity. In: Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. [UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity.]. 76 pp. http://www.hear.org/pier/reports/niue_report_2004.htm

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Witt A, Luke Q, 2017. Guide to the naturalized and invasive plants of Eastern Africa. [ed. by Witt A, Luke Q]. Wallingford, UK: CABI. vi + 601 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158959 DOI:10.1079/9781786392145.0000

Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/

Links to Websites

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WebsiteURLComment
Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plantshttp://plants.ifas.ufl.edu/
Flora of the West Indieshttp://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gatewayhttps://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Riskhttp://www.hear.org/pier/species/urena_lobata.htm

Contributors

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19/07/13 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

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