Setaria palmifolia
(palm grass)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit, showing foliage and flowers Caption Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit, showing foliage and flowers. Makawao Forest Reserve, Maui. November 13, 2004 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit, showing foliage and flowers	Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit, showing foliage and flowers. Makawao Forest Reserve, Maui. November 13, 2004	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit. Wahinepee, Maui. August 03, 2002 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit. Wahinepee, Maui. August 03, 2002	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit, showing foliage Caption Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit, showing foliage. Wahinepee, Maui. August 03, 2002 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit, showing foliage	Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit, showing foliage. Wahinepee, Maui. August 03, 2002	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Leaves and inflorescences Caption Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); leaves and inflorescences. Olinda Rd Makawao, Maui. March 04, 2008 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Leaves and inflorescences	Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); leaves and inflorescences. Olinda Rd Makawao, Maui. March 04, 2008	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit. Makawao Forest Reserve, Maui. December 26, 2004 Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass); habit. Makawao Forest Reserve, Maui. December 26, 2004	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Setaria palmifolia (J. Koenig) Stapf

Preferred Common Name

• palm grass

Other Scientific Names

• Panicum palmaefolium J. Koenig (1788)
• Panicum palmifolia J. Koenig (1788)
• Setaria lenis (Steud.) Miq. (1857)

Local Common Names

• : bristlegrass; broadleaved bristlegrass; hailans pitpit; highland pitpit; knotroot; palmgrass; short pitpit
• Australia: pleated pigeon grass
• China: you gou wei cao; zhu tou cao; zhu ye cao; zong mao; zong ye cao; zong ye gou wei cao
• France: que de rat
• India: aruna; dhutesaro
• Indonesia: lintabung; rumput daun pisang
• Japan: sasa kibi
• Papua New Guinea: kura; pitpit
• Philippines: agusas
• Samoa: vao ‘ofe‘ofe
• Spain: pasto de palma
• Thailand: ya kap phai
• USA/Hawaii: mau‘u Kaleponi

Summary of Invasiveness

S. palmifolia is a robust perennial grass of the wet tropics that grows up to 2 m tall. It is native to Asia but has been widely introduced to Central America and the Pacific, usually as an ornamental, and has naturalized and become invasive in many new territories, especially on Pacific islands, including Hawaii. It can be a serious weed of forestry, plantation crops and of rice, but also threatens endangered species in natural forest and other natural vegetation. Holm et al. (1979) classified it as ‘serious’ in India and Indonesia, while PIER (2012) score it 7 on the Australian weed risk assessment system, meaning that it should not be imported into Australia. Availability as an ornamental makes it a continuing threat to new regions.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Setaria
•                                 Species: Setaria palmifolia

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Many other synonyms are listed by The Plant List (2012) in addition to those included in the Identity section. It was originally given the name Panicum palmifolium (also recorded as P. palmaefolium or P. palmifolia) by Koenig in 1788. It was first included in the genus Setaria as Setaria lenis in 1857. It has been given many other names within Agrostis, Panicum, Chaetochloa, Chamearaphis and Setaria. None of these are in current use, though the alternative spelling as S. palmaefolia occasionally occurs. Shukla (1996) comments that ‘this variable species approaches S. plicata on one hand and S. poiretiana on the other’ and some authors have suggested that the former is merely a depauperate form of S. palmifolia (e.g. Noltie, 2000).

Description

S. palmifolia is a densely tufted perennial grass with short, woody, knotty rhizomes, with foliage up to 1 m high. Individual leaves 20-60 cm long, 2-7 cm, wide, plicate (finely pleated with multiple ridges) glabrous or hispid, narrowed toward the base, apex acuminate. Leaf sheath hispid with irritant haitrs, ciliate near the ligule which is 2.5-3.5 mm long, also ciliate. Flowering culms may be decumbent at the base and rooting at the nodes, finally erect to 100-200 cm high, 5-8 mm diameter, nodes hairy. Panicle up to 60 cm long, 10 cm wide with branches each up to 20 cm, spreading, flexous. Spikelets 3-4 mm long, lanceolate, acute, some subtended by single bristles up to 15 mm long. Lower glume triangular, up to half as long as spikelet, upper glume 2/3 as long as spikelet, 5-7-nerved. Upper lemma somewhat rugose, shiny.  Caryopsis 2 mm long.

Plant Type

Distribution

S. palmifolia is native to tropical Asia but has been introduced deliberately or otherwise further east to Australia, New Zealand, Pacific Islands and South and Central America. There are single records for Florida and Texas in the USA in 2003 (Missouri Botanic Garden, 2012). A number of sources suggest occurrence in West Africa, from Sierra Leone to Cameroon (Burkhill, 1985). However, Burkhill mentions that some specimens at least have been re-determined. However, there are apparently sound sporadic records from southern Ethiopia in 1976, Liberia in 1964, Uganda in 1994, Niger in 1996 and Madagascar in 1927 (GBIF, 2012). There is no indication as to whether these populations had become naturalized. But a record from southern Zambia in 1996 indicates it was ‘widespread in shady under-story’ (Missouri Botanic Garden, 2012).

In Japan most modern records are from the extreme south of the country or from the Island of Okinawa, but there is one fossil record from Honshu Island further north (GBIF, 2012).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

No precise information is available but records suggest introductions prior to 1923 in Australia, 1927 in Madagascar, 1939 in Belize, 1958 in New Zealand, 1964 in Liberia, 1971 in Venezuela, 1976 in Ethiopia, 1983 in Tenerife, 1994 in Uganda and 1996 in Niger and Zambia (GBIF, 2012).

Risk of Introduction

The risk of introduction continues to be high as it is freely available as an ornamental. Plant Buddy (2012) lists 11 sources. S. palmifolia could thrive in many parts of tropical Africa.

Habitat

Found in tropical and subtropical rain forests, wet sclerophyll forests, dry sclerophyll forests, Brigalow forests, sub-humid woodlands, semi-arid shrub woodlands, open forest, margins of thickets, shady path-sides and amongst partly shaded plantation crops such as tea.

Habitat List

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Growth Stages

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

Chromosome number 2n=36 or 54 (Bor, 1960; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012; Missouri Botanic Garden, 2012). The meiotic behaviour in some populations of S. palmifolia (n=27) in India was found to be highly abnormal with low pollen fertility (Harpreet Kaur et al., 2011).

Reproductive Biology

The plant may be dispersed as rhizome fragments but the spread of individual plants by rhizome is very limited. Most spread is therefore by seeds which are produced quite abundantly. There is little published, however, on germination requirements or dormancy.

Physiology and Phenology

S. palmifolia is a C4 plant (Ibrahim et al., 2009) but there has been no detailed study of its physiology or phenology. It flowers from August to October in India.

Longevity

No specific information is available but it is understood to survive for at least 1 year (PIER, 2012).

Environmental Requirements

This is a tropical grass that suffers when temperatures fall below about 4.4ºC (40ºF), and dies to the ground when it freezes. If the roots do not freeze, though, it usually comes back in spring.

Drought tolerance of young plants is low but established clumps may survive moderate drought conditions.  

In China, Zeng XiaoPing et al. (2006) concluded that S. palmifolia had only moderate shade-tolerance, classing it with coffee in this character.

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

Natural enemies of S. palmifolia include the eriophyd mite Catarhinus palmifolies in Taiwan (Huang KunWei, 2005); Phacellium paspali and Cercospora setariae are also reported from Taiwan by Kirschner et al. (2004). The fungus Phyllachora setariicola is also quite widely reported (Cannon, 2001). It is a host of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in Fiji (Singh et al., 2010). None have been used or tested for biological control.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal (Non-biotic)

No documentation is available but local dispersal is certain to occur by wind and by soil or water movement.

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Shiels (2011) showed that seeds of S. palmifolia could be dispersed by rats in Hawaii, but less than 15% of the seeds survived the passage through the gut. Presumably domestic livestock could also cause dispersal on a local basis. PIER (2012) indicates dispersal by seed-eating birds.

Accidental Introduction

The seeds are very small and inconspicuous and could readily be introduced as contaminants of other pasture grass seed.

Intentional Introduction

Deliberate introduction continues to be highly probable as this species is widely advertised and made available as an ornamental plant. Several varieties are recognized including some with red foliage.

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

S. palmifolia is recorded as a weed of transplanted rice in Indonesia, upland rice in Thailand and Vietnam and also in unspecified rice systems in India and Nepal (IRRI, 1989). It can be abundant in tea plantations in Assam and has been recorded in wheat in Kashmir, but there are no data on economic losses or other costs incurred.

Growing wild in Assam, India, it gives fresh fodder yields of about 110.6 t/ha in 4 cuts. In trials with Jersey X Danish Red calves fed S. palmifolia ad lib., average dry matter intake was 2.1 kg/100 kg live-weight. The grass contained 8.8% digestible crude protein (DCP), 579% total digestible nutrients (TDN) and 48.5% starch equivalent. The calves showed positive balance for N, Ca and P (Bora et al., 1990). Protein was considered of good quality (Bradbury et al., 1985).

It is included in a mix of grasses fed to cattle in Sikkim (Das, 2005) and is regarded as an important component of natural pastures for goats in Meghalaya (Singh and Mudgal, 1999). Its nutritive value of was estimated in goats: the grass contained 47.6% TDN, 8.16% DCP and 28% starch equivalent with a nutritive ratio of 1:4.8; however, Gupta and Balaraman (1988) concluded that intake of grass in terms of TDN and minerals were inadequate to meet maintenance requirements of goats.

Environmental Impact

S. palmifolia is included among the valuable food plants for wildlife in the Mahananda wildlife sanctuary and other wildlife reserves of north Bengal, India (Ghosh, 1994).

S. palmifolia is among the plants posing a specific threat to endangered species Poa mannii and Phyllostegia warshaueri in Hawaii (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998; 2010).

PIER (2012) records it as invasive in Australia, New Zealand and on a number of Pacific Islands. Vigorous, monospecific stands of S. palmifolia occur in the Vailima Reserve and the Alaoa area in Samoa (Space and Flynn, 2002). The concern in these cases is mainly regarding threats to natural vegetation rather than to crops.

It is regarded as an environmental weed in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia, but has not been declared or considered noxious by any state government authorities.

Threatened Species

Risk and Impact Factors

• Invasive in its native range
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Tolerant of shade
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts forestry
• Threat to/ loss of endangered species
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - shading
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

The main economic use of S. palmifolia is as an ornamental plant. Seed is widely available on the internet and the plant is valued for its robust, striking palm-like foliage. 

It is not clear how often it is deliberately planted as a forage but where it occurs as a natural component of pasture, it regarded as of reasonable value though not as productive as many other species.

S. palmifolia has been used in the past as a human food source (Austin, 2006) and may still be in Papua New Guinea (FAO, 2012). It is also used for medicinal purposes, e.g. by the Mek tribes in Iranian Jaya, New Guinea (Plarre, 1995). In Perak a decoction is drunk for irregular menses and in the Philippines it is mixed with ashes of burned leaves to treat skin disorders (Plants for Use, 2012).

It is also used as shading material in plant nurseries.

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Potted plant
• Propagation material
• Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

It may be confused with Setaria plicata, which is closely-related but a smaller plant. Bor (1960) describes it as much smaller, with leaves only up to 3 cm wide, and panicle no more than 25 cm long and 5 cm wide. S. poiretiana and S. megaphylla have very dense panicles no more than 8 cm long. S. paniculifera is also similar, but with bristles below the spikelet up to 5 times as long as the spikelet.

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Physical/Mechanical Control

Small clumps can be dug out but protective clothing may be needed to protect against irritant hairs (Aukland Council, 2012).

References

Aukland Council, 2012. Biosecurity. http://www.arc.govt.nz/environment/biosecurity/search-for-plants/index.cfm?63E0F20E-14C2-3D2D-B905-50098EBBE4B9&plantcode=Setpal

Austin DF, 2006. Fox-tail millets (Setaria: Poaceae) - abandoned food in two hemispheres. Economic Botany, 60(2):143-158.

Banerjee BC, 1985. On the occurrence of some grasses in Coorg district of Karnataka state. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 7(2):479-480.

Bor NL, 1960. The grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan (excluding Bambuseae). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press, xviii + 767 pp.

Bora J; Saikia A; Baruah KK; 1987, publ. 1990. On the yield, chemical composition and nutritive value of Aruna grass for cattle. Journal of Research - Assam Agricultural University, 8(1-2):50-53.

Bradbury JH; Hammer B; Nguyen T; Tamate J; Anders M; Millar JS, 1985. Analyses of vegetables from the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal, 28(2):127-130.

Burkill HM, 1994. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. 2: Families E-I, Ed. 2. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, xii + 636 pp.

Cannon PF, 2001. Phyllachora setariicola. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria]. IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria, No. 147. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, Sheet 1466.

Chakravartee J, 1994. Weed control in tea. Two and a Bud, 41(1):2-11.

Das A, 2005. Effect of nevaro (Ficus hookerii) leaves supplementation to mixed jungle grass on feed intake and nutrient utilization in Sikkim local goats. Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology, 5(2):195-201.

Environment Canterbury, 2012. http://ecan.govt.nz/advice/your-land/plant-animal-pests/pages/rules-plant-pests.aspx

FAO, 2012. Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Papua New Guinea. FAO. http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/southpacific/png.htm

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/

Florabase, 2013. Flora of Western Australia. Perth, Western Australia: Department of Environment and Conservation. http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/

Floridata, 2012. Floridata database. Floridata database. Florida, USA: Floridata. http://www.floridata.com/

GBIF, 2012. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). http://data.gbif.org

Ghosh MS; Ramakrishnan L, 1981. Study on economical weed management programme in young and pruned tea with oxyfluorfen. Proceedings of the Eighth Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference., 119-125

Ghosh SB, 1994. Fodder grasses of Indian sanctuaries I - identification of grasses, consumed by herbivores, in the Mahananda and other wildlife sanctuaries of North Bengal. Indian Forester, 120(10):946-952; 9 ref.

Gupta HK; Balaraman N, 1988. Nutritive value of dhutesaro (Setaria palmifolia Koenig, Stapf.) for goats. Indian Journal of Animal Research, 22(1):47-48.

Harpreet Kaur; Harbans Singh; Nadeem Mubarik; Santosh Kumari; Gupta RC; Saggoo MIS, 2011. Cytomorphological studies in some species of Setaria L. from different phytogeographical parts of India. Cytologia, 76(3):309-318. http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/cytologia/76/3/76_309/_article

Holm LG; Pancho JV; Herberger JP; Plucknett DL, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 391 pp.

Huang KunWei, 2005. Eriophyoid mites of Taiwan: description of seven species of Diptilomiopidae from Hueysuen (Acari: Eriophyoidea). Plant Protection Bulletin (Taipei), 47(3):201-212.

Ibrahim DG; Burke T; Ripley BS; Osborne CP, 2009. A molecular phylogeny of the genus Alloteropsis (Panicoideae, Poaceae) suggests an evolutionary reversion from C₄ to C₃ photosynthesis. Annals of Botany, 103(1):127-136. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/

Kirschner R; Piepenbring M; and Chen CJ, 2004. Some cercosporoid hyphomycetes from Taiwan, including a new species of Stenella and new reports of Distocercospora pachyderma and Phacellium paspali. Some cercosporoid hyphomycetes from Taiwan, 17:57-68.

Malik ZH; Hussain F, 1990. The distribution of some weeds in wheat field of Kotli, Azad Kashmir. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 6(1):1-4.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2012. Tropicos database. Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Moody K, 1989. Weeds reported in Rice in South and Southeast Asia. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

Noltie HJ, 2000. Axonopus P. Beauv. Flora of Bhutan including a record of plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling. Volume 3 Part 2. Grasses of Bhutan. In: Flora of Bhutan including a record of plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling, 3(2). Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan, 716-717.

PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Plant Buddy, 2012. Plant Buddy. http://backyardgardener.com/Plant-Index/Plants/Setaria/palmifolia.html

Plants for Use, 2012. Plants for Use. http://plantsforuse.com/index.php?page=1&id=2865#2866

Plarre W, 1995. Evolution and variability of special cultivated crops in the highlands of West New Guinea (Irian Jaya) under present Neolithic conditions. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter, No. 103:1-13.

Rao VS; Rahman F; Singh HS; Dutta AK; Saikia MC; Sharma SN; Phukan BC, 1976. Effective weed control in tea by glyphosate. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 8(1):1-14.

Saikia D; Das R, 2009. Chemical weed control in tea of N.E. India. Valparai, India: National Workshop on Plant Protection of Tea, 214-420.

Shiels AB, 2011. Frugivory by introduced black rats (Rattus rattus) promotes dispersal of invasive plant seeds. Biological Invasions, 13(3):781-792. http://www.springerlink.com/content/bx41g8588434465l/

Shukla U, 1996. The grasses of north-eastern India. Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publishers, 404 pp.

Singh JN; Mudgal V, 1999. Mineral potentialities of a few forage grasses - their relationship with hydro-edaphic nature of Nokrek Biosphere (Meghalaya). Indian Journal of Forestry, 22(1/2):78-84.

Singh KA, 1999. Response of promising forage grasses to nitrogen. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 44(2):419-423.

Singh SK; Khurma UR; Lockhart PJ, 2010. Weed hosts of root-knot nematodes and their distribution in Fiji. Weed Technology, 24(4):607-612. http://www.wssajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1614/WT-D-09-00071.1

Space JC; Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 80 pp.

The Plant List, 2012. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org/

University of South Florida, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, USA: Florida Center for Community Design and Research. http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/Plant.aspx?id=366

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998. Big Island II: Addendum to the Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster. Big Island II: Addendum to the Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster. Portland, Oregon, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 80 pp. plus appendices.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year review. Short Form Summary Species Reviewed: Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass). 5-Year review. Short Form Summary Species Reviewed: Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass). 10 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3296.pdf

USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Weber E; Sun ShiGuo; Li Bo, 2008. Invasive alien plants in China: diversity and ecological insights. Biological Invasions, 10(8):1411-1429. http://www.springerlink.com/content/c25570xj6u44645h/?p=3d093fec46ab4097b45b287d6033e986&pi=21

Weeds of Australia, 2012. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=

Zeng XiaoPing; Zhao Ping; Cai XiAn; Rao XingQuan; Liu Hui; Ma Ling; Li ChangHong, 2006. Shade-tolerance of 25 low subtropical plants. Journal of Beijing Forestry University, 28(4):88-95. http://journal.bjfu.edu.cn

Distribution References

Banerjee B C, 1985. On the occurrence of some grasses in Coorg district of Karnataka state. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany. 7 (2), 479-480.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

GBIF, 2012. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species

Holm L, Pancho J V, Herberger J P, Plucknett D L, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, Chichester (), Brisbane, Toronto, UK: John Wiley and Sons. xlix + 391 pp.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2012. Tropicos database., Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

University of South Florida, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Tampa, USA: Florida Center for Community Design and Research. http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/Plant.aspx?id=366

USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

Weber E, Sun ShiGuo, Li Bo, 2008. Invasive alien plants in China: diversity and ecological insights. Biological Invasions. 10 (8), 1411-1429. http://www.springerlink.com/content/c25570xj6u44645h/?p=3d093fec46ab4097b45b287d6033e986&pi=21 DOI:10.1007/s10530-008-9216-3

Weeds of Australia, 2012. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition., http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=

Links to Websites

Contributors

20/09/12 Original text by:

Chris Parker, Consultant, UK

Distribution Maps