Andropogon glomeratus
(bushy bluestem)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); habit. USA. Copyright ©John D. Byrd/Mississippi State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Habit	Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); habit. USA.	©John D. Byrd/Mississippi State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Habit Caption Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); habit. USA. Copyright ©James H. Miller & Ted Bodner/Southern Weed Science Society/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Habit	Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); habit. USA.	©James H. Miller & Ted Bodner/Southern Weed Science Society/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Habit Caption Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); seeding habit. Parade Field, Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii, USA. March, 2015. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); seeding habit. Parade Field, Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii, USA. March, 2015.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); habit, with seed heads. September,1997. USA. Copyright ©John D. Byrd/Mississippi State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US	Habit	Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); habit, with seed heads. September,1997. USA.	©John D. Byrd/Mississippi State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US
Title Invasive habit Caption Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); invasive habit in a Laysan albatross colony. Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii, USA. 2015. Copyright ©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Invasive habit	Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem); invasive habit in a Laysan albatross colony. Sand Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii, USA. 2015.	©Forest Starr & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Andropogon glomeratus (Walter) Britton et al.

Preferred Common Name

• bushy bluestem

Other Scientific Names

• Anatherum macrourum (Michx.) Griseb.
• Andropogon corymbosus (Hack.) Nash
• Andropogon corymbosus var. abbreviatus (Hack.) Nash
• Andropogon densus Desv. ex Ham.
• Andropogon glaucopsis (Elliott) Steud.
• Andropogon glomeratus var. abbreviatus (Hack.) Scribn.
• Andropogon glomeratus var. corymbosus (Hack.) Scribn.
• Andropogon glomeratus var. glaucopsis (Elliott) C.Mohr
• Andropogon glomeratus var. glomeratus
• Andropogon glomeratus var. hirsutior (Hack.) C.Mohr
• Andropogon glomeratus var. pumilus (Vasey) Dewey
• Andropogon glomeratus var. tenuispatheus Nash
• Andropogon hirsutior (Hack.) Weakley & LeBlond
• Andropogon macrourum var. abbreviatus Hack.
• Andropogon macrourum var. corymbosus Chapm. ex Hack.
• Andropogon macrourus Michx.
• Andropogon macrourus var. abbreviatus Hack.
• Andropogon macrourus var. corymbosus Hack.
• Andropogon macrourus var. glaucopsis Elliott
• Andropogon macrourus var. hirsutior Hack.
• Andropogon macrourus var. pumilus Vasey
• Andropogon montanus var. glaucopsis (Steud.) Hack.
• Andropogon spathaceus Trin.
• Andropogon tenuispatheus (Nash) Nash
• Andropogon virginicus f. hirsutior (Hack.) Fernald & Griscom
• Andropogon virginicus f. tenuispatheus (Nash) Fernald
• Andropogon virginicus var. abbreviatus (Hack.) Fernald & Griscom
• Andropogon virginicus var. corymbosus (Hack.) Fernald & Griscom
• Andropogon virginicus var. glaucopsis (Elliott) Hitchc.
• Andropogon virginicus var. hirsutior (Hack.) Hitchc.
• Andropogon virginicus var. tenuispatheus (Nash) Fernald & Griscom
• Capillipedium parviflorum f. glaucopsis (Steud.) Roberty
• Cinna glomerata Walter
• Dimeiostemon macrourus (Michx.) Raf. ex B.D.Jacks.
• Sorghum glomeratum (Walter) Kuntze

International Common Names

• English: broomsedge bluestem; bushy beardgrass; bushy bluestem; bushy broom grass; chalky bluestem
• Spanish: cola de zorra; mato escoba del fogón; matojillo; pasto; popotillo matorralero; rabo de mula; tallo azul matorralero; yerba barbuda

Local Common Names

• Mexico: ch’it-suuk
• USA: wi’tsura’k

Summary of Invasiveness

A. glomeratus is a perennial species native to the southeastern USA, Mexico and parts of Central Mexico and the Caribbean. Because of its popularity as an ornamental grass, it has been introduced to areas outside its native range, where it has become naturalized, notably in Hawaii, Central Europe, South Africa and Japan. This species invasively self-seeds under proper growing conditions (PIER, 2008). In Mexico, it is considered a potentially invasive weed (Sánchez-Ken et al., 2012). In Puerto Rico, it has been listed as a weed (Cardenas and Coulston, 1967). In Hawaii, it is considered a noxious weed (PIER, 2008). Although it is not know to occur in other Pacific islands, because of its invasiveness in similar ecosystems, this species is considered an invasive species of environmental concern in Samoa (Space and Flynn, 2002a), Cook Islands (Space and Flynn, 2002b) and Palau (Space et al., 2003).

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Andropogon
•                                 Species: Andropogon glomeratus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Andropogon is a genus of plants in the grass family. This genus comprises 125 APG-III accepted and 64 unresolved species (The Plant List, 2013). Andropogon taxa are widely distributed, predominantly in the tropics and sub-tropics (Watson and Dallwitz, 1992). This genus owes its name to the Greek words aner (from andr-, man) and pogon (beard), alluding to villous pedicels of sterile and male-only spikelets (Watson and Dallwitz, 1992).

Andropogon glomeratus was described in 1888 by Britton et al. (1888). In the past, several authorities considered A. glomeratus and A. virginicus as one species; however, the two grasses are distinct and consistent in appearance and are currently recognized as separate species (Newman and Gates, 2006). The Latin epithet glomeratus refers to this species’ compound inflorescence (Johson and Smith, 1972). 

Hybridization can occur with A. longiberbis (Campbell, 1982) and with A. virginicus (Campbell, 2003).

Description

Adapted from Clayton et al. (2015):

A. glomeratus is perennial plant, with erect, strong stalks that grow up to 1.5 m tall. These stalks are often ramified at the base, usually scabrous, sometimes smooth. Ligules are short (0.6-2.2 mm), brown, sometimes ciliate. Foliar blades 30-400 mm long, 2.9-9.5 mm wide, glabrous or sparsely to densely pubescent, hairs usually spreading, rarely appressed. Synflorescence compound; paniculate and dense. Inflorescence terminal and axillary, 300 mm long, dense, oblong, composed of racemes (20-30 mm long) disposed in pairs, sometimes in groups of 3; subtended by a spatheole; embraced at the base by subtending leaf. Spatheole lanceolate; 15-30 mm long. Peduncle 5-10 mm long; hirsute above.

Spikelets ascending, or spreading; in pairs. Fertile spikelets sessile; 1 in the cluster. Companion sterile spikelets pedicelled; 1 in the cluster. Pedicels filiform; curved; plumose. Glumes dissimilar; exceeding apex of florets; firmer than fertile lemma. Lower glume lanceolate; 1 length of spikelet; membranous; 2-keeled; keeled laterally. Lower glume intercarinal veins absent. Lower glume surface concave. Upper glume lanceolate; membranous; 1-keeled; 1-veined. Upper glume lateral veins absent. Upper glume muticous. Basal sterile florets barren; without significant palea. Lemma of lower sterile floret lanceolate; hyaline. Fertile lemma lanceolate; hyaline; without keel. Lemma apex lobed; 2-fid; awned; 1-awned. Principal lemma awn from a sinus; straight; 10-20 mm long overall. Palea absent or minute. 3 Anthers. Caryopses ca. 3 mm long.

Plant Type

Distribution

A. glomeratus is native to southeastern USA, Mexico and parts of Central America, South America and the Caribbean. It has been introduced to Hawaii, Honshu (Japan) and South Africa.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

The introduction history of this species is unknown (HISC, 2015).

Risk of Introduction

It is possible that seeds may be spread unintentionally, as a contaminant of produce, imported sand or gravel, or machinery (Quattrocchi, 2006; PIER, 2008). Moreover, because of its popularity as an ornamental grass, there is a risk of further intentional introductions of A. glomeratus.

Habitat

A. glomeratus grows along roadside ditches, swamp margins, pastures (Newman and Gates, 2006), seasonal ponds and marshy depressions in pine flatwoods, pastures, depression wetlands and other upland disturbed wet sites (Quattrocchi, 2006). This species is typically found at an altitude of 0 to 5,000 meters (PIER, 2008).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

In some areas of Hawaii, A. glomeratus has been noted to outcompete native plant species such as Heteropogon contortus, Dodonaea viscosa and the endemic Vaccinium reticulatum (Taylor, 1982).

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

According to Watson and Dallwitz (1992), Andropogon taxa have persistent nucleoli and are 2–18 ploid. A. glomeratus has a chromosome base number of x = 10 with 2n = 20 (Campbell, 2003).

Reproductive Biology

A. glomeratus is wind-pollinated. This species is propagated by seed or root division (Rojas Chavez and Vibrans, 2010). There is little information on germination behaviour or longevity but Martinez et al. (1992) indicate optimum temperature to be alternating 20/32°C and some benefit of light over darkness.

Physiology and Phenology

Andropogon glomeratus is a perennial grass possessing a C4 photosynthetic pathway (Campbell, 2003). It possibly blossoms in its second year (PIER, 2008).

Longevity

This species is a long-lived perennial (Florida Native Plant Society, 2013). Information on longevity of the seeds is not available.

Population Size and Structure

This species forms dense stands in bogs, open mesic areas and dry habitats (PIER, 2008).

Nutrition

A. glomeratus is not tolerant to salt and generally will not grow at soil salinity levels above 0.5 ppt (Newman and Gates, 2006). However, it grows well in nutrient-poor soils (Newman and Gates, 2006).

Environmental Requirements

A. glomeratus prefers full sun, although it will grow under partial shade (Newmand and Gates, 2006). It tolerates hot climates and coastal areas provided constant moisture is present, but does not tolerate drought (EOL, 2015). It can be found in ‘irregularly to seasonally inundated or saturated loamy soil’ (EOL, 2015). A. glomeratus is not tolerant to salt and generally will not grow at soil salinity levels above 0.5 ppt (Newman and Gates, 2006). However, Bowman and Strain (1988) found distinct differences in the salt tolerance of populations from salt marsh and fresh-water marsh and there is at least some tolerance of short-term salinity.

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• impeded
• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• acid

Soil texture

• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile

Water Tolerances

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

This species is a host plant for the cobweb skipper (Hesperia metea subsp. licinius), a subspecies of butterfly (Clark, 2015). It is also a host of Periconia echinocloae, a pathogenic fungus of rice (Oryza sativa) (Sandoval Ramírez et al., 2003). The mostly neotropical damsel bug Lasiomerus andabata preys on the crowns of Andropogon glomeratus (Wheeler, 2001).

Metcalfe (1969) records that A. glomeratus is one of the original hosts of the serious sugar cane pest Saccharosydne saccharivora (Delphacidae). Ingram et al. (1939) also record it as a host of the sugarcane mosaic virus and the possible transfer to the crop by the aphid Carolinaia (Hysteroneura) setariae.

The smut fungus Sporisorium culmiperdum (Pérez et al., 2002) occurs in Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba and Brazil (where A. glomeratus is also present) and is known to be associated with Andropogon spp..

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

A. glomeratus seed is dispersed by wind (Cain et al., 1998). PIER (2008) stated that this species’ occurrence around waterways suggests seeds can also be dispersed by water.

Accidental Introduction

This species can potentially be introduced as a seed contaminant (Quattrocchi, 2006) or through imported sand or gravel, or machinery (PIER, 2008). Seeds can also be dispersed in dry arrangements as the dry seed stalks remain mostly intact through winter and make attractive cut material (PIER, 2008).

Intentional Introduction

Because of its popularity as an ornamental (Wolfe and Zajicek, 1998), there is a risk of further intentional introduction.

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

Due to its potential as a seed contaminant, Wiersema and León (1999) considered A. glomeratus an economically important weed. Although rarely occurring in crops it may affect e.g. rice as an alternative host of Periconia echinocloae, and sugar cane as an alternative host of Sporisorium culmiperdum and of sugarcane mosaic virus.

Environmental Impact

In some areas of Hawaii, A. glomeratus has been noted to outcompete native plant species such as Heteropogon contortus, Dodonaea viscosa and the endemic Vaccinium reticulatum (Taylor, 1982).

Smith et al. (1980) have described the increase of Andropogon populations after fire (Smith et al., 1980). A. glomeratus is highly flammable throughout most of the year (Taylor, 1982), and so stands of this species could change fire regimes, whereby fires promote the conditions necessary to increase fire frequency and size by increasing the continuity and/or fuel loadings of alien grasses (Smith and Tunison, 1992).

Threatened Species

Risk and Impact Factors

• Invasive in its native range
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
• Reproduces asexually

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Increases vulnerability to invasions
• Modification of fire regime
• Transportation disruption

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Competition - strangling
• Competition (unspecified)
• Pest and disease transmission
• Hybridization

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
• Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Social Benefit

A. glomeratus is used as an ornamental grass in landscapes because of its showy plumes that turn a rust colour during late autumn and early winter. In Mexico, this species is used for medicinal purposes and for the elaboration of traditional handicrafts, as well as for fodder (Mejía-Saulés and Dávila Aranda, 1992). As a forage grass, however A. glomeratus rates low in desirability (Newman and Gates, 2006). According to Newman and Gates (2006), this species is more palatable during the early spring, when comestibility is increased after a late winter burning.

Boughman and Oxendine (2004) listed several uses for this species in North America. In Cherokee traditional medicine combined with amaranth, it was used in the eleaboration of green corn medicine (a medicine used in a ceremony of the same name). Lumbee people use the soaked roots of A. glomeratus in an infusion to treat jaundice, frostbine and diarrhea. The Lumbee also use this species as an analgesic, febrifuge and antidiahrreal (Boughman and Oxendine, 2004).

Environmental Services

According to Newman and Gates (2006), some wildlife benefits from A. glomeratus: the junco finch (Junco spp.) and tree sparrow (Spizelloides arborea) eat the seeds; and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and rabbits browse this species. A. glomeratus also provides good cover for small animals such as mottled ducks (Anas fulvigula) and fawns (white-tailed deer) (Newman and Gates, 2006).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Forage

General

• Ritual uses

Ornamental

• Potted plant
• Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

A. glomeratus is similar in aspect and habit to A. bicornis (Standley and Steyermark,1952), but A. bicornis differs in lacking an awn on the fertile spikelet (awnless in A. glomeratus and A. virginicus). It is more easily confused with A. virginicus (Croat, 1978), with which it often hybridises (Campbell, 2003). A. glomeratus is distinguishible from A. virginicus by the former’s dense and agglomerated inflorescence, with racemes grouped together in the terminal portion (Morales, 2003). A. virginicus inflorescences are more sparse.

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures

Control by grazing should be done under strict vigilance, as overgrazing favors the increase of A. glomeratus (Newman and Gates, 2015).

Physical/Mechanical Control

It is not certain which strategies of physical control work on this species. Newman and Gates (2015) recommended mowing or burning. However, this species readily colonizes burnt areas (Taylor, 1982) and is benefited by overgrazing (a situation that could be emulated by mowing) (Newman and Gates, 2015).

Chemical Control

According to the USDA Weed Control Compendium (1983), herbicide application shows little or no effect on A. glomeratus. In contrast, McCarthy et al. (2001) stated that that this species is controllable with post-emergence treatments consisting in repeated applications of MSMA, DSMA, asulam, quinclorac, atrazine/simazine or metribuzin.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

Chemical control of this species should be further studied, as there is some discrepancy with regards to the effect of herbicides on A. glomeratus. More importantly, available information on the effect of fire and mowing (and grazing) of this species as method of control could be counterproductive. As Taylor (1982) stated, the response of this species to fire could confound management attempts to protect resources from unplanned fires, to use prescribed fire to combat exotic plants, and to reintroduce natural fire to fire-type vegetation communities. Therefore, areas of recommended research include ecology and prevention and control. Also the germination behaviour and longevity of the seeds.

References

Boughman AL, Oxendine LO, 2004. Herbal Remedies of the Lumbee Indians. Jefferson, NC, USA: McFarland, 191 pp.

Bowman WD, Strain BR, 1988. Response to long- and short-term salinity in populations of the C4 nonhalophyte Andropogon glomeratus Walter B. Oecologia, 75(1):73-77.

Britton NL, Poggenburg JF, Sterns EE, 1888. Preliminary catalogue of Anthophyta and Pteridophyta, reported as growing spontaneously within one hundred miles of New York City. Albany, New York, USA 122 pp.

Cain ML, Damman H, Muir A, 1998. Seed dispersal and the holocene migration of woodland herbs. Ecological Monographs, 68(3):325-347.

Campbell CS, 1982. Hybridization between Andropogon glomeratus var pumilus and Andropogon longiberbis (Gramineae) in Central Florida. Brittonia, 34(2):146-150.

Campbell CS, 2003. Andropogon L. modified by Barkworth from Barkworth et al. Flora of North America, 25 [ed. by Barkworth]. http://herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/

Cardenas J, Coulston L, 1967. Weeds of Central America. A list of common and scientific names. Mimeograph. Oregon St. Univ. Agency int. Dev, 67-4:22 pp.

Clark D, 2015. The Dallas County Lepidopterists' Society. http://www.dallasbutterflies.com/

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Croat TB, 1978. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press., ix + 943 pp.

Encyclopedia of Life, 2015. Encyclopedia of Life. www.eol.org

Florida Native Plant Society, 2013. Andropogon glomeratus, bushy bluestem. http://www.fnps.org/plants/plant/andropogon-glomeratus. Accessed 21/12/15

GBIF, 2015. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species

Hawaii Invasive Species Council, 2015. Bush Beardgrass (Bushy Bluestem) (Andropogon glomeratus). http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/

Ingram JW, Haley WE, Charpentier LJ, 1939. Insect Vectors of Sugarcane Mosaic in Continental United States. Proceedings of the International Society of Sugarcane Technologists, 6:483-494 pp.

Johnson AT, Smith HA, 1947. Plant names simplified. Collingridge, London, 120 pp.

Martínez ML, Valverde T, Moreno-Casasola P, 1992. Germination response to temperature, salinity, light and depth of sowing of ten tropical dune species. Oecologia, 92(3):343-353.

McCarty LB, Everest JW, Hall DW, Murphy TR, Yelverton F, 2001. Color Atlas of Turfgrass Weeds. Chelsea, MI, USA: Ann Arbor Press, 432 pp.

Mejía-Saulés MT, Dávila Aranda P, 1992. Useful grasses of Mexico (Gramíneas Útiles de México). Mexico City, Mexico: Universidad Autónoma de México, 301 pp.

Metcalfe JR, 1969. Studies on the biology of the sugar-cane pest Saccharosydne saccharivora (Westw.) (Horn., Delphacidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 59(pt. 3):393-408 pp.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Morales JF, 2003. Poaceae. In: Manual of Plants of Costa Rica. Vol. III. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 93 [ed. by Hammel, B. E. \Grayum, M. \Herrera, C. \Zamora, N.]. 1-858.

Newman SD, Gates M, 2006. Bushy Beardgrass. Andropogon glomeratus (Walt) B.S.P. USDA NRCS Plant Guide., USA: USDA NRCS. http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_angl2.pdf

Pérez JM, Hernández MRodríguez, Minter DW, 2002. Sporisorium culmiperdum. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria]. IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria, No. 153. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, Sheet 1523.

PIER, 2008. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. USA: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Quattrocchi U, 2006. CRC world dictionary of grasses: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, 2384 pp.

Rojas Chavez S, Vibrans H, 2010. Andropogon glomeratus. Malezas de México., Mexico: CONABIO. http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/poaceae/andropogon-glomeratus/fichas/ficha.htm

Sánchez-Ken JG, Zita Padilla GA, Mendoza Cruz M, 2012. Catalogue of native and introduced grasses of Mexico weeds (Catálogo de las gramíneas malezas nativas e introducidas de México. Mexico: Consejo Nacional Consultivo Fitosanitario)., Mexico: National Advisory Council of Phytosanitary, 433 pp.

Sandoval Ramírez I, Ofelia López M, Bonilla Bernal T, 2003. Species of Periconia on rice seeds. (Especies de Periconia sobre las semillas de arroz (Oryza sativa L.)) Fitosanidad, 7(3):17-19.

Smith CW, Parman T, Wampler K, 1980. Impact of fire in a tropical submontane seasonal forest. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference Science Research. National Parks, Fire ecology, 10. 313-324.

Smith CW, Tuniuson JT, 1992. Research and management implications for native ecosystems. In: Fire and alien plants in Hawaii. http://manoa.hawaii.edu/hpicesu/book/1992_chap/17.pdf

Snow L, Lau A, 2010. Notes on grasses (Poaceae) in Hawaii: 2. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2008. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 107:46-60.

Space JC, Flynn T, 2002a. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service, 83 pp.

Space JC, Flynn T, 2002b. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 148 pp. http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/cook_islands_report.pdf

Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.

Standley PC, Steyermark JA, 1952. Poaceae. Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana Botany, 24(2):17-27.

Taylor DD, 1982. Controlling exotic plants in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Hawaii, USA: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. http://manoa.hawaii.edu/hpicesu/speci/3rd/55.pdf

The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass). US Fish and Wildlife Service, 10 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau). US Fish and Wildlife Service, 8 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. In: Determination of Endangered Status for 48 Species on Kauai and designation of Critical Habitat: Final Rule. US Fish and Wildlife Service, i + 205 pp.

Watson L, Dallwitz MJ, 1992. The grass genera of the world. Version: 18th December 2012. URL: http://delta-intkey.com [Accessed 04 September 2013]

Weed Control Compendium USDA, 1983. Systemic Herbicides for Weed Control Phenoxy herbicides, dicamba, picloram, amitrole, and glyphosate. https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/weeds/weed-control-guides/USDA-Final.PDF

Wheeler AG Jr, 2001. Additional Florida records of the seldom-collected Lasiomerus andabata (Hemiptera: Nabidae). Florida Entomologist, 84(4):723.

Wiersema JH, León B, 1999. World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, 749 pp.

Wolfe J III, Zajicek JM, 1998. Are ornamental grasses acceptable alternatives for low maintenance landscapes? Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 16(1):8-11.

Distribution References

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

GBIF, 2015. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Determination of Endangered Status for 48 Species on Kauai and designation of Critical Habitat: Final Rule. In: Determination of Endangered Status for 48 Species on Kauai and designation of Critical Habitat: Final Rule. USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service. i + 205 pp.

Contributors

31/10/15 Original text by:

Diana Quiroz, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands

Distribution Maps