Cosmos caudatus (wild cosmos)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Cosmos caudatus Kunth
Preferred Common Name
- wild cosmos
Other Scientific Names
- Bidens artemisiifilia ssp. caudata (Kunth) Kuntze
- Bidens berteroana Spreng.
- Bidens carnea Heer
- Bidens caudata (Kunth) Sch.Bip.
- Cosmea caudata Spreng.
- Cosmos caudatus var. exaristatus Sherff
Local Common Names
- Cuba: romerillo
- Dominican Republic: yema de huervo
- Germany: Cosmee; Schmuckblume
- Indonesia: kenikir
- Malaysia: ulam raja
- Puerto Rico: clavellillo; margarita; piquete
- Russian Federation: kosmos chvostaty
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageC. caudatus is a prolific seed-producing annual that grow to 2.5 metres tall sporting very attractive heads of flowers. There are many cultivars of C. caudatus and some of these have become popular in the horticultural trade, especially in the Philippines and Malaysia. The seeds are viable in the appropriate climatic zones and are hitchhikers on clothing and animal fur.
C. caudatus is included in the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It is troublesome and difficult to control in the tropics. C. caudatus spreads by seed. This species will spread in disturbed areas and also invade undisturbed areas to a lesser extent.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Cosmos
- Species: Cosmos caudatus
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageAsteraceae is one of the largest families of flowering plants with about 1620 genera and more than 23,600 species (Stevens 2012). Vegetatively the members of this family are extremely variable, but they are readily recognized by their flowers (florets) in heads (capitula) surrounded by an involucre of bracts. The small, single-seeded fruit (cypsela), often has a plumose pappus, that aid in wind dispersal (Stevens 2012), but not so in Cosmos, which belongs to a group of genera that have awns instead of fthe eathery pappus.
Cosmos spp. were originally distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the New World, especially North America. About 40 species are currently recognized, with the centre of diversity in Mexico. Several species have been introduced around the world and have become naturalized, and occasionally invasive. They are closely allied to the ‘beggars tick’ genera Coreopsis and Bidens and whose generic boundaries are currently in a state of flux.
Cosmos caudatus has cryptogenic origins in southern Mexico, Central America or the Antilles. A review by Melchert (1990) suggests that it is native to the gulf slopes of Mexico from Tamaulipas through Veracruz and the Yucatan Peninsula and perhaps further afield. It was first collected by von Humboldt and Bonpland, near Havana, Cuba in 1801. The type of Bidens berteroana is from Puerto Rico, collected by Bertero in 1818 (Sprengel, 1826). It is confusing that this species was described with yellow flowers (Kunth, 1818) although the current species concept has flowers pink to purple (Sherff, 1932, 1955, 1964; Melchert, 1990). For his circumscription, Kunth may have had only dried herbarium material with bleached flowers.
Melchert (1990) identified that the then concept of C. caudatus included a self-compatible tetraploid (C. caudatussens. Sherff) and a self-incompatible diploid, which he described as C. pacificus (C. caudatus var. exaristatus Sherff) with two varieties. Strother (1999) returned the second variety, C. pacifica var. chiapensis, to C. caudatus, however, there is no mention of the status of C. pacifica var. pacifica. Strother’s concept would then have C. caudatus with diploid and tetraploid populations. On the other hand, Kiger (2006) has kept Melchert’s concept as the tetraploid only (2n=48) and it is only the self-compatible tetraploid that has been reported as invasive.
The Malaysian common name ulam raja means "the King's salad”, referring to the edible nature of the plant.
Description
Top of pageAnnual herb 0.3–2.5 m high, with a weak taproot. Stems erect, branched, glabrous or sparsely hispid. Leaves cauline, alternate, deeply lobed; petioles 10–70 mm long; blades 100–200 mm long; ultimate lobes 2–10 mm wide; margins spinulose-ciliate; apices acute, often mucronulate. Synflorescences 100–300 mm long, spreading with linear-subulate bractlets 6–10 mm long; apices acuminate. Capitula 5–15 mm diam.; involucral bracts erect, oblong-lanceolate, 7–11 mm long with apices acute to obtuse apices; ray florets rose-pink to purple; laminae oblong-oblanceolate, 5–15 mm long with obtusely 3-lobed apices; disc florets 5–6 mm long. Cypselae light brown, 12–35 mm long, glabrous or scabridulous proximally, setose distally; pappus 2–3 widely divergent to reflexed awns 3–5 mm long (description compiled from Pruski 1997; Beentje and Hind 2005; Kiger 2006; Puttock pers. obs.).
Distribution
Top of pageThere is no clear consensus of the origins of C. caudatus, however, it is generally assumed as native to southern Mexico, and appearing weedy wherever it occurs in Central America and the Antilles. It was present in Cuba and Puerto Rico by 1801 and 1818 respectively (Kunth 1820; Sprengel 1826). Melchert (1976) described C. caudatus in Guatemala as “a tropical weed occurring in damp roadside thickets, wet tropical grasslands, cultivated fields, etc.” and Robinson (2006) in Ecuador as widely cultivated and naturalized. Although D’Arcy (1975) described the species as native to Central America and the Antilles, he implies that all four species of Cosmos in Panama are introduced. It is also listed as introduced in Ecuador (Jørgensen and León-Yánez 1999).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Lesser Sunda Islands | Present | Introduced | West Timor | ||||
-Sumatra | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Tortola, Virgin Gorda | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present | ||||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | St. Croix, St. John, St. thomas | |||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalised | |||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Timor-Leste | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Forzza et al. (2014) | ||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Forzza et al. (2014) | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Forzza et al. (2014) | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Forzza et al. (2014) | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Original citation: Forzza et al. (2014) | ||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageC. caudatus was brought by the Spanish from Mexico to southeast Asia, via the Philippines. It was present in Cuba in 1801 and Puerto Rico in 1818, as verified by the types of the two early names for this taxon. In Fiji it was reported as a weed “common everywhere, sometimes in pure stands on waste land in both islands up to 500 feet” (Greenwood 1943).
This species will spread in disturbed areas and also invade undisturbed areas to a lesser extent. It is commonly found around old settlements and weedy agricultural land, and open forest. It is classified as being an agricultural and environmental weed, commonly escaping cultivation and becoming naturalized. It is classified as an invasive weed in Florida, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic.
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Malaysia | Philippines | 1800s | Food (pathway cause) | Yes | ||||
Philippines | Mexico | 1700s | Yes |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of Cosmos caudatus is relatively high. This species is broadly dispersed by humans and has the potential to grow as a weed in ruderal areas, and agricultural and pasture lands. C. caudatus has been reported as a roadside and ruderal weed in Central and South America, Australia and southeast Asia. Consequently, this species has the potential to spread much further than it has to date.
Habitat
Top of pageC. caudatus occurs naturally in grassy slopes and banks and in monsoonal deciduous forests. It is a common weed in disturbed areas, pastures, and roadsides throughout central American and the Caribbean. In South America it is found on roadsides and in remnant dry forest and semideciduous secondary forest from 30 to 900 metres altitude (Robinson 2006). It occurs in similar habitats wherever it has become established in the Old World tropics.
In Fiji, it is found "occurring from sea level to about 200 m, sometimes cultivated but frequently naturalized as a weed in waste places and along roadsides” (Smith, 1991). In Queensland, it is found from near sea level to 800 m, and usually grows around old settlements or as a weed of agricultural land. Also found in open forest and sometimes in vine thickets and monsoon forest (Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, 2010).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Industrial / intensive livestock production systems | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | ||
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Principal habitat |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
C. caudatus is a self-compatible tetraploid with a chromosome number of 4n = 48 (Melchert 1968, 1990; Robinson et al., 1981). The report of 2n = 12 for a specimen from Michoacan, Mexico, by Keil et al. 1988 is likely to be of C. pacificus (= C. caudatus var. exaristatusSherff 1964).
Reproductive Biology
Flowers in C. caudatus are pollinated by hymenoptera (bees) and lepidoptera (butterflies). Arnold et al. (2014) report that the species is adapted for pollination by both honey bees and megachile bees, and that the narrow tubular flowers also makes them ideally adapted for butterflies. Species of butterflies and bees visiting the flowers when grown in Madhya Pradesh, India, are listed by Arnold et al. (2014).
Longevity and Phenology
C. caudatus is an annual herb and under favourable environmental conditions produces flowers and seeds in spring and summer months.
Environmental Requirements
C. caudatus grows as a garden escape, roadside and ruderal weed. It needs full sunlight and moderate water availability to grow.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Preferred | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
15 | 15 |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- shallow
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageC. caudatus spreads by seeds carried by animals and dropped locally.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Attractive garden plant | Yes | Yes | |
Breeding and propagation | Attractive garden plant | Yes | Yes | |
Cut flower trade | Attractive garden plant | Yes | Yes | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Attractive garden plant | Yes | ||
Hitchhiker | Small seed contaminant | Yes | Yes | |
Internet sales | Popular garden plant | Yes | Yes | |
Nursery trade | Popular garden plant | Yes | Yes | |
Ornamental purposes | Popular garden plant | Yes | Yes | |
Seed trade | popular garden plant | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aircraft | Yes | |||
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Yes | Yes | ||
Yes | ||||
Plants or parts of plants | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Has high genetic variability
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageC. caudatus was brought by the Spaniards from Mexico to Southeast Asia via the Philippines. The plant is edible and widely used as a Malay herbal salad vegetable. It is also regarded in Malaysia as having medicinal value. It contains high mineral content and possesses high antioxidant activity which may be beneficial in bone disorders such as postmenopausal osteoporosis. It is also traditionally used to promote blood circulation.
C. caudatus has economic importance as a horticultural plant, with numerous cultivars.
Uses List
Top of pageGeneral
- Botanical garden/zoo
Human food and beverage
- Vegetable
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Potted plant
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Arnold R; Tiwari S; Saxena A; Mishra RM; Anand P; Pandey R, 2014. Ecological Studies of Natural Populations of Cosmos caudatus, H. With Special Reference to Pollination, Seed Behavior and Biomass Distribution. Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical Sciences, Section B: Biological Sciences, 4(1):324-328.
Auld B; Medd R, 1992. Weeds. An illustrated botanical guide to the weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.
Balick MJ; Nee M; Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85:1-246.
Beentje HJ; Hind DJN, 2005. Cosmos. In: Flora of Tropical East Africa. Compositae (Part 3) [ed. by Beentje, H. J. \Jeffrey, C. \Hind, D. J. N.]. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Bello Espinosa D, 1881. [English title not available]. (Apuntes para la flora de Puerto Rico. Primera parte.) Anal. Soc. Española de Hist. Nat, 10:231-304.
Brako L; Zarucchi JL, 1993. Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard, 45:1-1286.
Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, 2010. Australian tropical rainforest plants. http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/cd-keys/rfk/index.html
Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2014. Australia's virtual herbarium, Australia. http://avh.ala.org.au
D'Arcy WG, 1975. Coreopsidinae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 62(4). [Flora of Panama. Part IX, Family 184. Compositae.]
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of North America North of Mexico. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Flowers of India, 2014. Flowers of India. http://www.flowersofindia.net/
Forzza RC; Leitman PM; Costa AF; Carvalho Jr AA, et al. , 2014. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br
Greenwood W, 1943. The adventive and weed flora of the leeward coasts of Fiji. Proceedings of the Linnaean Society, 154:92-106.
Hnatiuk RJ, 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 11. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Kiger RW, 2006. Cosmos. In: Flora of North America North of Mexico. Vol. 21 [ed. by Flora of North America Editorial Committee]. New York and Oxford, USA and UK: Flora of North America Editorial Committee.
Kunth KS, 1818. Cosmos. In: Nova Genera et Species Plantarum (folio ed.). Vol. 4 [ed. by Bonpland, A. J. A. \Humboldt, F. W. H. A. von].
Madagascar Catalogue, 2014. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar. St. Louis, Missouri, USA and Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada
Matthew KM, 1983. The flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. Tiruchirapalli, India: Rapinat Herbarium, St. Josephs College.
Melchert TE, 1976. Cosmos. Fieldiana, 24:229-234. [Flora of Guatemala Part XII.]
Melchert TE, 1990. Cosmos caudatus (Asteraceae; Coreopsideae) in Mexico: a cytotaxonomic reappraisal. Phytologia, 69:200-215.
Merrill ED, 1925. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila, Philippines: Bureau of Printing.
Peekel PG, 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists. Lae, Papua New Guinea: Office of Forests, Division of Botany, 638 pp.
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Pruski JF, 1997. Asteraceae. Flora of the Venezuelan Guyana, 3:177-393.
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
Robinson H, 2006. Compositae-Heliantheae Part 1: Introduction, genera A-L. Flora of Ecuador, 77(1).
Robinson H; Powell AM; King RM; Weedin JF, 1981. Chromosome Numbers in Compositae, XII: Heliantheae. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 52:1-28.
Sherff EE, 1932. Revision of the genus Cosmos (Family Compositae). Field Museum of Natural History, Botany, 8:399-488.
Sherff EE, 1955. Cosmos. In: North American Flora, Series II [ed. by Sherff, E. E. \Alexander, E. J.]. 130-146.
Sherff EE, 1964. Some new or otherwise noteworthy Coreipsidinae from Mexico,Brittonia. Brittonia, 16:58-73.
Smith AC, 1991. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawai`i. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Volume 5, 626 pp.
Sprengel CPJ, 1826. Systema Vegetabilium, editio decima sexta.
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Stevens WD; Ulloa UC; Pool A; Montiel OM; Arbala´ez AL; Cutaia DM; Hollowell VC, 2001. Flora de Nicaragua. Monographs in Systematic Botany, 85:946-1910.
Strother J, 1999. Flora of Chiapas. Part 5 Compositae-Heliantheae s.l., USA: California Academy of Sciences.
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Distribution References
Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85 1-246.
Beentje HJ, Hind DJN, 2005. Cosmos. In: Flora of Tropical East Africa. Compositae (Part 3), [ed. by Beentje HJ, Jeffrey C, Hind DJN]. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Garden, Kew.
Brako L, Zarucchi J L, 1993. Catalogue of the flowering plants and gymnosperms of Peru. 1286 pp.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, 2010. Australian tropical rainforest plants., http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/cd-keys/rfk/index.html
Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2014. Australia's virtual herbarium., Australia: http://avh.ala.org.au
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of North America North of Mexico., http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Flowers of India, 2014. Flowers of India., http://www.flowersofindia.net/
Madagascar Catalogue, 2014. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar., St. Louis, Missouri and Antananarivo, USA, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada
Matthew KM, 1983. The flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic., Tiruchirapalli, India: Rapinat Herbarium, St. Josephs College.
Melchert TE, 1976. Cosmos. Flora of Guatemala Part XII. In: Fieldiana, 24 229-234.
Melchert TE, 1990. Cosmos caudatus (Asteraceae; Coreopsideae) in Mexico: a cytotaxonomic reappraisal. In: Phytologia, 69 200-215.
Peekel PG, 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists., Lae, Papua New Guinea: Office of Forests, Division of Botany. 638 pp.
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Sherff EE, 1932. Revision of the genus Cosmos (Family Compositae). In: Field Museum of Natural History, Botany, 8 399-488.
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Catalogue of Seed Plants of the West Indies | http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global Compositae Checklist | http://compositae.landcareresearch.co.nz/Default.aspx | |
PIER | http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html |
Contributors
Top of page03/10/2014 Original text by:
Christopher F. Puttock, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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