Cochliomyia hominivorax (New World screwworm)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Diseases Table
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Pathogen Characteristics
- Host Animals
- List of Symptoms/Signs
- Species Vectored
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Organizations
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
Don't need the entire report?
Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need.
Generate reportIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Cochliomyia hominivorax Coquerel
Preferred Common Name
- New World screwworm
Other Scientific Names
- Calliphora hominivorax (COQUEREL)
- Callitroga americana (CUSHING & PATTON)
- Callitroga hominivorax
- Cochliomyia americana
- Lucilia hominivorax
International Common Names
- English: flies, screwworm; Primary screwworm; screw worm; screwworm; screwworms in livestock
- Spanish: Gusano Barrenador del Ganado
- French: lucilie bouchere; ver en vis
- Portuguese: bicheira
Local Common Names
- Aruba: Schroefworm
- Germany: Fliege, Schraubenwurm-
- Netherlands Antilles: Schroefworm
EPPO code
- COCLAM (Cochliomyia americana)
- COCLHO (Cochliomyia hominivorax)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageCochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) is endemic to the Western Hemisphere, with the exception of Chile., although it has been eradicated from significant parts of its range. Although naturally occurring in relatively low numbers compared with other insect species, C. hominivorax has been introduced and spread into non-endemic and eradicated areas via movement of infested hosts, including humans. Introductions of C. hominivorax, sometimes resulting in outbreaks, have occurred in the United States of America, Mexico, Panama, Curacao, Aruba, Libya, and Australia.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Uniramia
- Class: Insecta
- Order: Diptera
- Family: Calliphoridae
- Genus: Cochliomyia
- Species: Cochliomyia hominivorax
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe taxonomy and nomenclature of this species was very confused for over 100 years. Cushing and Patton (1933) documented the difference between Cochliomyia americana C & P and Cochliomyia macellaria Fabricius, which served as a key basis in the eradication of Cochliomyia hominivorax from North America, Central America and parts of the Caribbean. Dear (1985) presents an explanation of the taxonomy and nomenclature of C. hominivorax and other members of the Chrysomyini.
Distribution
Top of pageCochliomyia hominivorax is endemic to the Western Hemisphere and occurs in tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones. Northern and southern limits of its range are primarily due to cold weather. Cochliomyia hominivorax is present in all South American countries with the exception of Chile. This species is also present in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. Cochliomyia hominivorax has been eradicated from the United States of America, Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama (an outbreak in Florida in 2016 was eradicated in 2017). A barrier zone is maintained in Panama using sterile flies and field operations to prevent immigration of C. hominivorax into eradicated areas. Eradication has also been achieved in Curacao, Netherlands Antilles, British Virgin Islands, US Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 05 Jan 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Angola | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Benin | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Botswana | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Burkina Faso | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Burundi | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Cabo Verde | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cameroon | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Central African Republic | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Chad | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Djibouti | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Egypt | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Eritrea | Present, Localized | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Eswatini | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Ethiopia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Ghana | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Guinea | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Kenya | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Lesotho | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Liberia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Libya | Absent, Eradicated | 1992 | 1988 | ||||
Madagascar | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Mali | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Mauritania | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Mauritius | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Mayotte | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Morocco | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Mozambique | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Namibia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Niger | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Nigeria | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Réunion | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Rwanda | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Saint Helena | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Senegal | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Seychelles | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Sierra Leone | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
Somalia | Absent | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
South Africa | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
South Sudan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
Sudan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Tanzania | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Togo | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Tunisia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Uganda | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Zambia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Zimbabwe | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Armenia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Azerbaijan | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bahrain | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Bangladesh | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Bhutan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Brunei | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cambodia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
China | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Georgia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Hong Kong | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
India | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Indonesia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Iran | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Iraq | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Israel | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Jordan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Kazakhstan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Kuwait | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Kyrgyzstan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Laos | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Lebanon | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Malaysia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
-Sabah | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
-Sarawak | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Maldives | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Mongolia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Myanmar | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Nepal | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
North Korea | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Oman | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Pakistan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Palestine | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Philippines | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Qatar | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Singapore | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
South Korea | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Sri Lanka | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Syria | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Taiwan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Tajikistan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Thailand | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Turkey | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Turkmenistan | Absent | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
United Arab Emirates | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Uzbekistan | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Vietnam | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Yemen | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Andorra | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Austria | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Belarus | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Belgium | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bulgaria | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Croatia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cyprus | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Czechia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Denmark | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Estonia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Faroe Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Finland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
France | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Germany | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Greece | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
Hungary | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Iceland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Ireland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Isle of Man | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Italy | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Jersey | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Latvia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Liechtenstein | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Lithuania | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Luxembourg | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Malta | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Moldova | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Montenegro | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Netherlands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
North Macedonia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Norway | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Poland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Portugal | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Romania | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Russia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
San Marino | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Serbia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Serbia and Montenegro | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Slovakia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Slovenia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Spain | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Sweden | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Switzerland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Ukraine | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
United Kingdom | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
-Northern Ireland | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Barbados | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Belize | Absent, Eradicated | 1994 | |||||
Bermuda | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
British Virgin Islands | Absent, Eradicated | 1975 | |||||
Canada | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cayman Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Costa Rica | Absent, Eradicated | 2000 | |||||
Cuba | Present | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Curaçao | Absent, Eradicated | 1954 | |||||
Dominica | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
El Salvador | Absent, Eradicated | 1995 | |||||
Greenland | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Guadeloupe | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Guatemala | Absent, Eradicated | 1994 | |||||
Haiti | Present | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Honduras | Absent, Eradicated | 1996 | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Martinique | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Mexico | Absent, Eradicated | 1991 | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Absent, Eradicated | 1954 | |||||
Nicaragua | Absent, Eradicated | 1999 | |||||
Panama | Present, Localized | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Puerto Rico | Absent, Eradicated | 1975 | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Absent, No presence record(s) | ||||||
Saint Lucia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Absent | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Absent, Eradicated | 1975 | |||||
United States | Absent, Eradicated | 1966 | |||||
-Florida | Absent, Eradicated | 2017 | 1933 | Originally introduced in 1930s; eradicated by 1959; outbreak in 2016 eradicated in 2017 | |||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Cook Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Fiji | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
French Polynesia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Kiribati | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2018 | |||||
Marshall Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
New Caledonia | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
New Zealand | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Palau | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2020 | |||||
Samoa | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Timor-Leste | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2018 | |||||
Tonga | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Vanuatu | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Brazil | Present | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
Chile | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Colombia | Present | Jul-Dec-2019; in wild animals only | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Jan-Jun-2020 | |||||
Falkland Islands | Absent, No presence record(s) | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
French Guiana | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Guyana | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Paraguay | Absent | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Peru | Present, Localized | Jan-Jun-2019 | |||||
Suriname | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Uruguay | Present | Jul-Dec-2019 | |||||
Venezuela | Present, Widespread |
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Aruba | 2004 | Yes | No | Eradicated 2004; JB Welch, USDA, unpublished data | ||||
Aruba | 2011 | Yes | No | Eradicated 2011; JB Welch, USDA, unpublished data | ||||
Curaçao | 1971-1977 | Yes | No | Baumhover (1997) | Eradicated 1977 | |||
Libya | 1988-1992 | Animal production (pathway cause) | Yes | No | FAO (1992) | Eradicated 1992 | ||
Mexico | 1992 | Yes | No | Wyss (2000) | Eradicated 1992 | |||
Mexico | 1993 | No | No | Wyss (2000) | Eradicated 1993 | |||
Mexico | 2001 | Yes | No | Eradicated 2001; JB Welch, USDA, unpublished data | ||||
Mexico | Mexico | 2003 | No | No | Introduced due to irradiator malfunction; eradicated 2003; JB Welch, USDA, unpublished data | |||
Panama | Mexico | 2003 | No | No | Introduced due to irradiator malfunction; eradicated 2003; JB Welch, USDA, unpublished data | |||
Panama | 2012 | No | No | Eradicated 2012; JB Welch, USDA, unpublished data | ||||
Panama | 2009 | Yes | No | Eradicated 2009; C Duerr, COPEG, unpublished data | ||||
Florida | 2016 | No | No | Skoda et al. (2018) | Eradicated 2017 |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageRisk of introduction of C. hominivorax may be relatively low; however, movement of infested hosts into non-infested habitats remains a risk. As long as populations of C. hominivorax exist in the Western Hemisphere, modern travel conveyances, especially aircraft, make the introduction of C. hominivorax continents away from the original source of infestation a real possibility. Adults of C. hominivorax can occasionally enter cars, boats, ships, and aircraft, but this is extremely rare.
Pathogen Characteristics
Top of pageDetailed descriptions of the life stages of C. hominivorax are presented in Laake et al. (1936).
Eggs: Eggs are bright white, approximately 1.04 mm long and 0.26 mm in diameter with a cylindrical shape, rounded at the posterior end and flattened at the anterior end with a dorsal seam extending from the anterior end almost to the posterior end of the egg. Eggs are laid in a parallel pattern in layers glued together to form a mass which gives them the appearance of a shingled roof. Eggs are laid in masses which contain from 10 to 400. Eggs are generally laid on or near the edges of wounds but may also be laid on or near host body orifices with purulent discharge. Eggs have also been observed laid approximately 5 cm from the edge of wounds under the moist wool of sheep in Costa Rica during the rainy season (J Welch, personal observation).
Larvae: First instar larvae are approximately 1.2 mm and 0.23 mm, length and diameter, respectively, at hatching and are clear with internal structures visible. Mature first instar larvae are approximately 3.6 mm and 0.57 mm, length and diameter, respectively, and are whitish in colour. Newly molted second instar larvae are generally whitish in colour and are approximately 3.5mm and 0.6mm, length and diameter, respectively. Mature second instar larvae are approximately 6.3 mm to 7.4 mm and 1.5 mm, length and diameter, respectively, and are whitish to cream coloured. Third instar larvae are white to cream to pink coloured depending on diet, and are approximately 6.4 mm to 17 mm in length and 1.6 mm to 3.5 mm in diameter. All larval instars have characteristic bands of spines on most segments and a pair of heavily sclerotized mouth hooks, main tracheal trunks and spiracles. The spiracles with three slit-like openings are almost completely surrounded by heavily sclerotized peritremes, but which appear incomplete ventrally.
Pupae: Pupae are barrel-shaped and dark brown in colour. They are approximately 10.2 mm and 4.3 mm in length and width, respectively.
Adults:Laake (1936) reported that flies are generally deep metallic greenish-blue in colour. Colour is variable, ranging from metallic light to dark green, light grayish-blue through sky-blue to dark blue (J Welch, personal observation). Flies have three dark longitudinal stripes on the dorsal part of the thorax. C. hominivorax adults are approximately 2-3 times the size of a house fly.
Host Animals
Top of pageList of Symptoms/Signs
Top of pageSign | Life Stages | Type |
---|---|---|
General Signs / Cyanosis, blue skin or membranes | Sign | |
General Signs / Inability to stand, downer, prostration | Sign | |
General Signs / Swelling mass penis, prepuce, testes, scrotum | Sign | |
Nervous Signs / Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless | Sign | |
Pain / Discomfort Signs / Skin pain | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Paraphimosis or priapism, inability to retract penis | Sign | |
Reproductive Signs / Phimosis | Sign | |
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Alopecia, thinning, shedding, easily epilated, loss of, hair | Sign | |
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Foul odor skin, smell | Sign | |
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Parasite visible, skin, hair, feathers | Sign | |
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Skin erythema, inflammation, redness | Sign | |
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Skin necrosis, sloughing, gangrene | Sign | |
Skin / Integumentary Signs / Skin ulcer, erosion, excoriation | Sign | |
Urinary Signs / Dysuria, difficult urination, stranguria | Sign |
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Tolerated | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
41°58’ | 38°03’ |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -6.67 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 19.4 | |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 9.4 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 152 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Araneae | Predator | Adults | not specific | |||
Eriophora ravilla | Predator | |||||
Formicidae | Predator | Arthropods|Larvae | not specific | |||
Macrocheles muscaedomesticae | Parasite | |||||
Neoscona oaxacensis | Predator | |||||
Nephila clavipes | Predator | |||||
Trichotrombidium muscarum | Parasite |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageCochliomyia hominivorax occurs in relatively low numbers compared with other insect species. Populations are aggregated yet mobile within favourable habitats. As a result, no natural enemies specific for C. hominivorax have been identified. Other insects, birds, frogs, lizards and spiders feed on adult C. hominivorax.Welch (1993) describes the predation of ground-released sterile C. hominivorax flies by spiders. Ants (especially Solenopsis sp.) are common predators of larvae that have exited wounds to pupate and have been observed pulling larvae from wounds (J Welch, unpublished data). There are no data to suggest that natural enemies are important to the population dynamics of C. hominivorax.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aid | Very low risk | Yes | Yes | |
Animal production | Moderate risk with movement of infested animals | Yes | Yes | |
Hitchhiker | Very low risk | Yes | Yes | |
Hunting, angling, sport or racing | Very low risk by movement of infested hunting dogs | Yes | Yes | |
Intentional release | Low risk | Yes | Yes | |
Military movements | Very low risk | Yes | Yes | |
People foraging | Very low risk | Yes | Yes | |
Pet trade | Very low risk | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aircraft | Low risk, but possible | Yes | Yes | |
Bulk freight or cargo | Very low risk, but possible | Yes | Yes | |
Hides, trophies and feathers | Very low risk | Yes | Yes | |
Land vehicles | Very low risk, but possible | Yes | ||
Livestock | Moderate risk | Yes | Yes | |
Pets and aquarium species | Warm-blooded terrestrial pets | Yes | Yes |
Economic Impact
Top of pageMyiasis by C. hominivorax results in a negative economic impact by a decrease in animal weights and milk production, and an increase in animal death. Additionally increase in the costs of inspection and handling of animals, and the increase in costs of insecticides, and veterinary services and medicines results in a negative economic impact (Wyss, 2000). Wyss (2000) reported substantial annual economic benefits to producers (US$ with conversion to 2015 US$ in parentheses) after eradication of C. hominivorax; $896.1 million ($1.25 billion) for the United States of America, $328.6 ($458.5) million for Mexico, and $87.8 ($122.5) million for all of the Central America countries combined. Expanding the analysis of the economic impact of eradicating C. hominivorax from Central America by adding linkages to the economy and consumer benefits resulted in an estimated total annual economic impact of $704.3 ($982.6) million to consumers (Wyss, 2000). Wyss (2002) estimated the annual economic benefits to producers in South America as $2.8 ($3.91) billion.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on habitats is none or unknown.
Impact on biodiversity is low, but may become more important in localized areas during conditions which promote the increase of C. hominivorax populations. Fuller (1962) reported that mortality of fawns of White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmerman), ranged from 20 to 80 percent annually depending on environmental and population conditions.
Social Impact
Top of pageInfestation of humans is under-reported due to the negative social implications. Those humans who cannot take care of themselves are especially vulnerable. Although the young, old, and mentally challenged are more susceptible to myiasis, all humans are potential hosts. Humans living in areas of favorable habitats for C. hominivorax are at a higher risk than those living in unfavorable habitats.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Host damage
- Increases vulnerability to invasions
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
- Negatively impacts human health
- Negatively impacts animal health
- Negatively impacts livelihoods
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Damages animal/plant products
- Negatively impacts trade/international relations
- Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
- Pathogenic
- Rapid growth
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
- Difficult/costly to control
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageResearch is needed on:
1. Population dynamics and distribution of C. hominivorax in the Amazon Basin.
2. Development of an attractant for male C. hominivorax.
3. Development of a new wound-treatment as coumaphos is no longer being produced.
References
Top of pageBaumhover AH, 1963. Susceptibility of screwworm larvae and prepupae to dessication. Journal of Economic Entomology, 56:473-475.
Baumhover AH, 1997. A personal account of programs to eradicate the screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax, in the United States and Mexico with special emphasis on the Florida program. Pioneer lecture presentation by the Florida Entomological Society, Daytona Beach, Florida, 4 August 1997. 52 pp.
Coquerel C, 1858. Des larves de diptéres developpés dans le sinus frontause et les fossess nasals de l'homme á Cayenne. Archives Genérales Médecines, 5:513-528.
Dear JP, 1985. A revision of the New World Chrysomyini (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, 3(3):109-169.
FAO, 1992. The new world screwworm eradication programme North Africa 1988-1992. Rome, Italy: FAO, 192 pp.
Fuller G, 1962. How screwworm eradication will affect wildlife. The Cattleman, 48:82-84.
OIE Handistatus, 2002. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2001). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE Handistatus, 2003. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2002). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE Handistatus, 2004. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2003). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (data set for 2004). Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int
Skoda, S. R., Phillips, P. L., Welch, J. B., 2018. Screwworm (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in the United States: Response to and Elimination of the 2016–2017 Outbreak in Florida, Journal of Medical Entomology, 55 https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjy049
Wyss JH, 2002. Overview of the sterile insect technique in screw-worm fly eradication. In: Proceedings of the screw-worm fly emergency preparedness conference, Canberra, Australia, 12-15 November 2001. Canberra, Australia: Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry, 176-181.
Distribution References
CABI Data Mining, 2001. CAB Abstracts Data Mining.,
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
FAO, 1992. The new world screwworm eradication programme North Africa 1988-1992., Rome, Italy: FAO. 192 pp.
OIE Handistatus, 2005. World Animal Health Publication and Handistatus II (dataset for 2004)., Paris, France: Office International des Epizooties.
OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4., Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. https://www.oie.int/
Skoda SR, Phillips PL, Welch JB, 2018. Screwworm (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in the United States: Response to and Elimination of the 2016-2017 Outbreak in Florida. In: Journal of Medical Entomology, 55 https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjy049
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
COPEG, Panama–United States Commission for the Eradication and Prevention of Screwworm | http://www.copeg.org/ | |
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | http://www.fao.org/ | |
IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency | http://www.iaea.org/ | |
US Dept of Agriculture - APHIS | http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ | |
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) | http://www.oie.int | Website of the World Organisation for Animal Health (formerly Office International des Epizooties). |
Organizations
Top of pageWorld: OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health), 12, rue de Prony, 75017 Paris, France, http://www.oie.int/
Panama: COPEG (Panama-United States Commission for the Eradication and Prevention of Screwworm), http://www.copeg.org/
Austria: IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, http://www.iaea.org/
Italy: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, http://www.fao.org/
USA: USDA-APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), US Department of Agriculture 1400, Independence Ave., SW Washington, DC 20250, Washington, DC, USA, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/
Contributors
Top of page27/01/16 Original text by:
John B. Welch, USDA-APHIS-IS, USDA-ARS-SPARC, 2881 F&B Road, College Station, Texas, USA
Distribution Maps
Top of pageSelect a dataset
Map Legends
-
CABI Summary Records
Map Filters
Unsupported Web Browser:
One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using.
Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser.
More information about modern web browsers can be found at http://browsehappy.com/