Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Principal Source
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl
Preferred Common Name
- blue snakeweed
Other Scientific Names
- Stachytarpheta australis Moldenke
- Stachytarpheta dichotoma (Ruiz Lopez & Pavon) Vahl
- Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Salisb.) Sims
- Valerianoides cayennensis (Rich.) Kuntze
- Verbena cayennensis Rich.
International Common Names
- English: blue porterweed; blue rat's tail; bluetop; branched porterweed; brazilian tea; cayenne porterweed; cayenne snakeweed; false verbena; joee; nettleleaf porterweed; nettleleaf velvetberry; nettleleaf vervain; rattail; rough leaved false vervain
- French: herbe à chenille; herbe bleue; queue de rat
Local Common Names
- Spanish: piche de gato; rabo de zorro
- Brazil: gervâo; gervao-urticante
- Cook Islands: tiaki
- Fiji: finak ne puak; lavenia; se karakarawa; serakawa; tumbutumbu; turulakaka
- French Polynesia: piripiri
- Japan: honagaso
- Kiribati: te uti
- Micronesia, Federated states of: ouchung; sakura
- Nauru: edidubai; edidubaiy
- Niue: mautofu samoa; motofu
- Palau: louch beluu
- Samoa: fua pepe; fua pepe; mautofu; mautofu tala; mautofu vao; taioti; vao pepe
- Tonga: ‘i kuma; ‘iku ‘i kuma; hiku ‘i kuma
- USA/Hawaii: oi; owi
EPPO code
- STCHI (Stachytarpheta cayennensis)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageS. cayennensis is a shrub native to South and Central America and the Caribbean. It was introduced widely introduced into several tropical countries around the world as an ornamental species due to its attractive blue flowers, but in some countries it has become invasive. S. cayennensis has a wide environmental tolerance and often invades disturbed areas where it can outcompete native flora. It is invasive in many Pacific islands and is regarded as a noxious weed in the Northern Territory, Australia and is increasing in abundance in Florida, USA. According to a risk assessment this species is regarded as being highly invasive (score 20 = high risk) (PIER, 2015).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Lamiales
- Family: Verbenaceae
- Genus: Stachytarpheta
- Species: Stachytarpheta cayennensis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageS. cayennensis belongs to the Verbenaceae family which comprises around 100 genera. The genus Stachytarpheta has undergone a series of taxonomic revisions that are further complicated by putative hybrids (Wilson et al., 2009). A total of 32 synonyms of S. cayennensis, including varieties, have been reported (The Plant List, 2013). Further details of the taxonomic history can be found in Munir (1992).
A number of species within the genus Stachytarpheta are also known to be invasive weeds.
Stachy(s) (a spike, originally an ear of corn) describes the elongate inflorescence, and tarphy (thick) refers to the thickened or densely flowered flower stalks. The plant was named after the capital of French Guiana, Cayenne.
The genus Stachytarpheta contains about 65 species, mostly from the American tropics. Many of which are regarded as being weedy throughout the tropics and subtropics. The closely related species S. jamaicensis is similar in appearance to S. cayennensis and the common names for these species are often used interchangeably.
Description
Top of pageS. cayennensis is a perennial evergreen herb or subshrub which can reach heights of 2.5 m. It has a woody glabrous stem with several branches. Leaves opposite, membranous, elliptic to broadly elliptic or ovate, 4-8 cm long, 2-4.5 cm wide, upper surface rugose, both surfaces glabrous or occasionally lower surface with a few scattered hairs usually along the veins and margins, margins sharply and coarsely serrate, the teeth conspicuously divergent, apex acute, base cuneate, petioles 0.5-2 cm long. Spikes slender, rachis flexuous to erect or somewhat nodding, 14-40 cm long, ca. 2.5 mm in diameter, the furrows somewhat shallow, nearly as wide as the rachis, bracts lanceolate, ca. 7 mm long; calyx ca. 7 mm long, the teeth subequal; corolla usually dark purplish blue with a paler center, the tube 7-8 mm long (Wagner et al., 1999).
Distribution
Top of pageThe native range of S. cayennensis includes much of the Americas, from Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, through tropical South America to southern Brazil (Weeds of Australia, 2011).
This species has been introduced into all of the continents with tropical and subtropical climates between 30° N and 30° S parallels.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | Alphonse Island, Coetivy Island | ||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | 1977 | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | |||||||
-Chagos Archipelago | Present | Introduced | Diego Garcia Island | ||||
China | Present | Introduced | |||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kerala | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | 1967 | ||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Barbados | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Belize | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Grenada | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Alta Verapaz, Chimaltenango, Izabal, Petén | ||||
Haiti | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Islas de la Bahía | ||||
Jamaica | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatan | ||||
Montserrat | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Panama | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Canal Area, Chiriquí, Coclé, Colón, Darién, Panamá, Veraguas | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Hawaii, Kauai, Lanai, Maui, Molokai and Oahu islands | |||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Christmas Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Mangareva, Hiva Oa, Tahuata, Ua Huka, Huahine, Moorea, Mopelia Atoll, Raiatea, Manuae, Taha'a, Tahiti, Tupai, Makatea, Niau Atoll, Rangiroa Atoll, Takapoto Atoll, Tikehau Atoll, Toau Atoll, Raivavae, Rapa, Rurutu and Tubuai islands | |||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kiribati | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | Gilbert Islands, Phoenix Islands, Line Islands | |||
Marshall Islands | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nauru | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Niue | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Palau | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Samoa | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tokelau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tonga | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | |||||
Tuvalu | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States Minor Outlying Islands | |||||||
-Wake Island | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Vanuatu | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Corrientes, Entre Rios, Jujuy, Misiones, Salta | ||||
Bolivia | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Acre | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Amapa | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Amazonas | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Bahia | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Ceara | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Goias | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Maranhao | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Para | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Parana | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Chile | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
Colombia | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present, Few occurrences | Native | El Oro, Galapagos Islands, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Rios, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Pichincha, Zamora-Chinchipe | ||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Floreana, Isabela, San Cristobal and Santa Cruz islands | |||
French Guiana | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present, Few occurrences | Native | |||||
Peru | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Amazonas, Cajamarca, Cuzco, Huanuco, Junin, Loreto, Madre de Dios, San Martin, Ucayali | ||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present, Few occurrences | Native | Amazonas, Anzoátegui, Apure, Aragua, Barinas, Bolívar, Carabobo, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Distrito Federal, Guárico, Lara, Mérida, Miranda, Monagas, Nueva Esparta, Portuguesa, Sucre, Táchira, Trujillo, Yaracuy, Zulia |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageThe majority of introductions throughout the world are as a result of intentional introductions for ornamental purposes. S. cayennensis produces an attractive blue flower which is appealing to bees and butterflies.
In 1868 S. cayennensis was introduced into New Caledonia as fooder for livestock (Blanfort et al., 2008).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of S. cayennensis being introduced into new areas is fairly high as seeds of this species are readily available for sale on the internet. In addition to this, it can disperse locally by winds, attachment of seeds to vehicles and animals or as a contaminant in hay (Weeds of Australia, 2011). A risk assessment conducted by PIER (2015) gave this species a high score of 20 and therefore would reject its import due to its invasive tendencies.
Habitat
Top of pageS. cayennensis is common in open field like pastures, crop fields, moorlands, fallow lands, roadsides and wastelands. This species is also tolerant to shade and may invade low density forests. S. cayennensis grows on every type of soils, including infertile and dry soils. Although it can tolerate drought, this species grows best in moist, deep, fertile soils in disturbed areas (HEAR, 2012).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageS. cayennensis may outcompete smaller native plant species and crops dedicated to livestock are often affected by smothering. In Australia, this species is commonly found as a weed of pastures and sugarcane (Saccharum species) (DAFF, 2014).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Theobroma cacao (cocoa) | Malvaceae | Unknown |
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
30 | 30 |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- saline
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Seeds of S. cayennensis may be dispersed over short distances by rain and run-off. There is some indications that this species may reproduce and spread locally by vegetative propagation (PIER, 2015).
Vector Transmission
Seeds of this species may become attached to the fur of animals and translocated over short distances into new areas (Weeds of Australia, 2011).
Accidental Introduction
It is believed that the spread of this species in Queensland, Australia is a result of accidental introductions via fodder, hay and contaminated pasture seed (Smith, 2002). Seeds may also be introduced into new areas in garden waste or by attachment of seeds to clothing, vehicles and machinery (Weeds of Australia, 2011).
Intentional Introduction
S. cayennensis was intentionally introduced into a number of countries as an ornamental species. This species produced an attractive blue flower which is appealing to bees and butterflies. Seeds of this species are still readily available for sale on the internet.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Garden waste disposal | Yes | |||
Internet sales | Several companies sell seeds for ornamental purposes | Yes | ||
Seed trade | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Yes | |||
Land vehicles | Yes | Smith (2002) | ||
Livestock | Yes | Weeds of Australia (2011) | ||
Soil, sand and gravel | Yes | Smith (2002) | ||
Water | Yes | Smith (2002) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Positive |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
S. cayennensis is unpalatable to livestock and in areas with heavy grazing this species may outcompete surrounding species (HEAR, 2013).
Impact on Biodiversity
This species is opportunistic and can readily invade disturbed areas. It can form dense thickets which may outcompete or smother native plant species (PIER, 2015). In Florida this species is regarded as a Category II plant, a species which has increased in abundance but has not yet altered plant communities (FLEPPC, 2009).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Hybridization
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
There is no information available on the economic value of S. cayennensis. As an ornamental this species is sold in the nurseries and via the internet and therefore has some economic value.
Social Benefit
In Latin America, S. cayennensis is utilised in traditional medicine to treat symptoms of malaria, treat dysentery and liver disorders, to relieve fevers and to act as a sedative (Taylor, 2012). The plant contains flavonoids, terpenes, phenols and steroids and has been found to have anti-inflammatory and anti-malarial properties (Okoye et al., 2014).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Ornamental
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Ornamental
- Potted plant
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageOthers species within the genus Stachytarpheta closely resemble S. cayennensis. These include S. jamaicensis, S. australis and S. mutabilis. The colour of the flower is often used to differentiate between the species. The flowers of S. jamaicensis are light blue or mauve, S. australis has light blue or white flowers and the stem and lower face of leaves are pubescent and S. mutabilis is characterized by having larger pink or red flowers with a hairy stem.
Hybridization between the closely related species S. cayennensis and S. jamaicensis may occur. The hybrids more closely resemble S. jamaicensis, but the corollas are darker in colour than typical in S. jamaicensis. The habit is more erect, and the leaves are usually more ovate, darker green and with more divergent teeth similar to S. cayennensis (Wagner et al., 1999). S. cayennensis may also hybridize with S. mutabilis. A number of hybrids have been found to have naturalized in Queensland (Weeds of Australia, 2011).
S. cayennensis is also similar in appearance to Verbena litoralis and V. officinalis however these have four stamens instead of two with smaller flowers which are less than 4 mm across (Weeds of Australia, 2011).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention
SPS Measures
In Australia, S. cayennensis is regarded as an environmental weed and regulations are in place in a number of territories to prevent its spread. In New South Wales this species is restricted, meaning that it cannot be sold or distributed within the territory. In the Northern Territroy this species has been declared a noxious weed. This means that the spread of this species must be controlled and that introductions are prohibited (Weeds of Australia, 2012).
S.cayennensis is included in a list of the 33 most invasive species of the South Pacific (Blanfort et al., 2008).
Control
Physical/Mechanical Control
Manual removal of seedlings by hand can be effective for small populations, ensuring the large roots are also removed. S. cayennensis may also be controlled by chipping or cultivation (ploughing, grubbing and hoeing) (Swarbrick, 1997). Planting of local and vigorous pasture plants, such as legumes, may compete with S. cayennensis and prevent re-establishment.
Biological Control
No biological control agents have been released for S. cayennensis, however possible agents are discussed by Waterhouse and Norris (1987). The potential for biological control of the closely related species S. jamaicensis is discussed in detail by Cock et al. (1985).
Chemical Control
It has been suggested that S. cayennensis is sensitive to foliar application of 2,4-D or MCPA (Motooka et al., 2003). It is however, less sensitive to other hormone type herbicides, although drizzle application of triclopyr in water have been found to be effective in trials in Palau (Motooka et al., 2003). Some control using glyphosate has been recorded. The best control of S. cayennensis can be achieved during the summer months when plants are actively growing (Weeds of Australia, 2011).
IPM
For large areas of S. cayennensis it is recommended that plants are mechanically removed and treated with herbicides. The best time to cut plants is before flowering. It is necessary to follow up and retreat areas with herbicides to provide effective control (Weeds of Australia, 2011).
References
Top of pageBlanfort V; Desmoulins F; Bourgeois TLe; Guiglion R, 2008. Plantes envahissantes et à conflit d'intérêt des pâturages de Nouvelle-Calédonie ([English title not available]). Nouméa, New Caledonia: Institut Agronomiquenéo-Calédonien Editeur, 206 pp.
Carnevali G; Tapia-Muñoz JL; Duno Stefano Rde; Ramírez Morillo, 2010. [English title not available]. (Flora ilustrada de la Peninsula Yucatán: listado florístico.) . Mérida, Mexico: Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, 326 pp.
Chong K; Hugh TW; Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp.
Comité français l'Union Internationale pour Conservation Nature France de la de la en, 2013. [English title not available]. (Les espéces envahissantes en outre-mer.) . http://www.especes-envahissantes-outremer.fr/autoComplete/index.php
Cowan CP, 1983. [English title not available]. (Flora de Tabasco. Listados floríst.) México, 1:123 pp.
Davidse G; Sousa Sánchez M; Knapp S; Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae. Flora Mesoamericana, 4:1-533.
Department of Agriculture; fisheries and forestry biosecurity Australia (DAFF), 2014. Snakeweed, Stachytarpheta spp. https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/54392/IPA-Snakeweed-PP52.pdf
Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2013. Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council's 2013 list of invasive plant species. Florida, USA: Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. http://www.fleppc.org/list/2013/FLEPPCPlantList2013-PRINTABLEwithlinkstoCAIPpages.pdf
Forzza R, 2010. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Fosberg F; Sachet M, 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution, 15 pp.
Fosberg F; Sachet MH, 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92. Washington, USA: Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, 29 pp.
Fosberg FR, 1990. A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 330. Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution, 100 pp.
Fosberg FR; Sachet M-H; Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian Dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:1-295.
Fosberg FR; Stoddart DR, 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin, 393:60 pp.
Gibson DN, 1970. Verbenaceae. Flora of Guatemala - Part IX, Numbers 1 and 2. Fieldiana, Botany, 24(9/1-2):167-236.
Gilman EF, 2007. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis blue porterweed. Florida, USA: University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FP/FP55900.pdf
Hancock IR; Henderson CP, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Honiara, Solomon Islands: Dodo Creek Research Station.
HEAR, 2012. Alien species in Hawaii. Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/index.html
Hokche O; Berry PE; Huber O, 2008. Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela (New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela). Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela, 860 pp.
Idárraga-Piedrahita A; Ortiz RDC; Callejas Posada R; Merello M; (eds), 2011. . Medellín, Colombia: Universidad de Antioquia.
Jørgensen PM; Nee MH; Beck (eds) SG, 2014. [English title not available]. (Catalogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia.) Monographs in systematic botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press.
Lamberson JO, 1982. A guide to terrestrial plants of Enewetak Atoll. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Pacific Science Information Center, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 73 pp.
Lawesson JE; Adsersen H; Bentley P, 1987. An updated and annotated check list of the vascular plants of the Galapagos Islands, 16. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 74 pp.
Meyer JY, 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]). Papeete, Tahiti: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Mito T; Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research, 8(2):171-191.
Munir AA, 1992. A taxonomic revision of the genus Stachytarpheta (Verbenaceae) in Australia. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 14(2):133-168.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Pool A; Rueda RM, 2001. Verbenaceae. (Verbenaceae.) In: Flora de Nicaragua, 85(3) [ed. by Stevens, W. D. \Ulloa, C. \Pool, A. \Montiel, O. M.]. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press, 2497-2525.
Ragone D; Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, 91 pp.
Renner SS; Balslev H; Holm-Nielsen LB, 1990. Flowering plants of Amazonian Ecuador - a checklist (AUU reports). Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 241 pp.
Robertson SA; Fosberg FR, 1983. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles, 273:253 pp. [Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands.]
Shine C; Reaser JK; Gutierrez AT, 2003. Invasive alien species in the Austral-Pacific Region: National Reports & Directory of Resources.
Smith NM, 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide., Australia: Environment Centre NT, Inc, 112 pp.
Sousa Sánchez M; Cabrera Cano EF, 1983. Flora de Quintana Roo. Listados Florísticos de México. 1-100.
Space JC; Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 51.
Space JC; Flynn T, 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 34.
Space JC; Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 80 pp.
Space JC; Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, 103 pp.
Space JC; Lorence DH; LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on invasive plant species. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 233 pp.
Space JC; Waterhouse BM; Miles JE; Tiobech J; Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.
Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper No. 209. Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission.
Sykes WR, 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200. p. 238.
Sykes WR, 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department. Sci. Indust. Res. Bull. 200: 1-321.
Taylor L, 2012. Raintree, tropical plant database. Milam County, Texas, USA. http://www.rain-tree.com/
Thaman RR; Fosberg FR; Manner HI; Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392:1-223.
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
Topp JMW, 1988. An annotated check list of the flora of Diego Garcia, British Ocean Territory. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 313.
Troncoso NS, 1979. Verbenaceae. (Verbenaceae.) In: Flora Ilustrada de Entre Rios, 5 [ed. by Burkart, A. E.]. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, 229-294.
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Vargas CC, 1943. La flora de la región descubierta por la expedición de "The Vicking Fund". Revista Univ. (Cuzco), 84:1-19.
Waterhouse DF; Norris KR, 1987. Biological control: Pacific prospects. viii + 454pp
Weeds of Australia, 2011. Dark blue snakeweed, Stachytarpheta cayennensis. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Stachytarpheta_cayennensis
Wester L, 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 287:1-38.
Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica (online), 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf
Whistler WA; Atherton J, 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Unpublished technical report. 76 pp.
Yuncker TG, 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bulletin, 220:343 pp.
Distribution References
Anon, 2014. [English title not available]. (Catalogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia). In: Monographs in systematic botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, [ed. by Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG]. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Carnevali G, Tapia-Muñoz JL, Duno Stefano Rde, Ramírez M, 2010. [English title not available]. (Flora ilustrada de la Peninsula Yucatán: listado florístico)., Mérida, Mexico: Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán. 326 pp.
Chong K, Hugh TW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.
Cowan CP, 1983. [English title not available]. (Flora de Tabasco). In: Listados floríst. 1 México: 123 pp.
Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. (Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae). In: Flora Mesoamericana, 4 1-533.
Forzza R, 2010. List of species of the Flora of Brazil. (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil)., http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Fosberg F, Sachet M, 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123, Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 15 pp.
Fosberg F, Sachet MH, 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92, Washington, USA: Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences. 29 pp.
Fosberg FR, 1990. A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 330., Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 100 pp.
Fosberg FR, Stoddart DR, 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 393 60 pp.
Foster R C, 1958. A catalogue of the ferns and flowering plants of Bolivia. 223 pp.
Gibson DN, 1970. Verbenaceae. Flora of Guatemala - Part IX, Numbers 1 and 2. In: Fieldiana, Botany, 24 (9/1-2) 167-236.
Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela. (Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela)., Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela. 860 pp.
Lamberson JO, 1982. A guide to terrestrial plants of Enewetak Atoll., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Pacific Science Information Center, Bernice P. Bishop Museum. 73 pp.
Lawesson JE, Adsersen H, Bentley P, 1987. An updated and annotated check list of the vascular plants of the Galapagos Islands., 16 Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. 74 pp.
Meyer JY, 2007. [English title not available]. (Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire)., Papeete, Tahiti, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche. 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and new regulations for prevention of their adverse effects. In: Global Environmental Research, 8 (2) 171-191.
Munir AA, 1992. A taxonomic revision of the genus Stachytarpheta (Verbenaceae) in Australia. In: Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 14 (2) 133-168.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Pool A, Rueda RM, 2001. Verbenaceae. (Verbenaceae.). In: Flora de Nicaragua, 85 (3) [ed. by Stevens WD, Ulloa C, Pool A, Montiel OM]. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 2497-2525.
Ragone D, Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa., Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.
Renner SS, Balslev H, Holm-Nielsen LB, 1990. Flowering plants of Amazonian Ecuador - a checklist (AUU reports)., Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. 241 pp.
Robertson SA, Fosberg FR, 1983. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles, 273 253 pp.
Shine C, Reaser JK, Gutierrez AT, 2003. Invasive alien species in the Austral-Pacific Region: National Reports & Directory of Resources.,
Space JC, Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. 80 pp.
Space JC, Imada, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum. 103 pp.
Space JC, Lorence DH, LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on invasive plant species., Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. 233 pp.
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.
Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. In: Technical paper No. 209, Noumea, New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission.
Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 1-223.
Topp JMW, 1988. An annotated check list of the flora of Diego Garcia, British Ocean Territory. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 313,
Troncoso NS, 1979. (Verbenaceae). In: Flora Ilustrada de Entre Rios, 5 [ed. by Burkart AE]. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. 229-294.
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Vargas CC, 1943. (La flora de la región descubierta por la expedición de "The Vicking Fund). In: Revista Univ. (Cuzco), 84 1-19.
Wester L, 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 287 1-38.
Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory., Isle Botanica. 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf
Whistler WA, Atherton J, 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. In: Unpublished technical report, 76 pp.
Yuncker TG, 1959. Plants of Tonga. In: Bishop Museum Bulletin, 220 343 pp.
Contributors
Top of page31/03/2015 Original text by:
Erwan Le Nezet, Service d'Etat de l'Agriculture, de la Forêt et de la Pêch, Wallis and Futuna
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