Invasive Species Compendium

Detailed coverage of invasive species threatening livelihoods and the environment worldwide

Datasheet

Stachytarpheta cayennensis
(blue snakeweed)

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Datasheet

Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed)

Index

Summary

  • Last modified
  • 16 November 2021
  • Datasheet Type(s)
  • Invasive Species
  • Pest
  • Preferred Scientific Name
  • Stachytarpheta cayennensis
  • Preferred Common Name
  • blue snakeweed
  • Taxonomic Tree
  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •   Kingdom: Plantae
  •     Phylum: Spermatophyta
  •       Subphylum: Angiospermae
  •         Class: Dicotyledonae
  • Summary of Invasiveness

  • S. cayennensis is a shrub native to South and Central America and the Caribbean. It was introduced widely introduced into several tropical countries around the world as an ornamental species due to its attractive blue flowers, but in some...

  • Principal Source

  • Draft datasheet under review

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Pictures

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PictureTitleCaptionCopyright
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowers. West Kuiaha Rd, Haiku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. November, 2006.
TitleFlowers
CaptionStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowers. West Kuiaha Rd, Haiku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. November, 2006.
Copyright©Forest & Kimm Starr-2006 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowers. West Kuiaha Rd, Haiku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. November, 2006.
FlowersStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowers. West Kuiaha Rd, Haiku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. November, 2006.©Forest & Kimm Starr-2006 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowering habit - all the darker areas are Stachytarpheta. East Poelua West Maui, Maui, Hawaii, USA. May, 2009.
TitleInvasive habit
CaptionStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowering habit - all the darker areas are Stachytarpheta. East Poelua West Maui, Maui, Hawaii, USA. May, 2009.
Copyright©Forest & Kimm Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowering habit - all the darker areas are Stachytarpheta. East Poelua West Maui, Maui, Hawaii, USA. May, 2009.
Invasive habitStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); flowering habit - all the darker areas are Stachytarpheta. East Poelua West Maui, Maui, Hawaii, USA. May, 2009.©Forest & Kimm Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); habit. Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. March, 2013.
TitleHabit
CaptionStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); habit. Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. March, 2013.
Copyright©Forest & Kimm Starr-2013 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); habit. Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. March, 2013.
HabitStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); habit. Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. March, 2013.©Forest & Kimm Starr-2013 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); leaves. Kipahulu LZ Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2009.
TitleLeaves
CaptionStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); leaves. Kipahulu LZ Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2009.
Copyright©Forest & Kimm Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); leaves. Kipahulu LZ Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2009.
LeavesStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); leaves. Kipahulu LZ Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2009.©Forest & Kimm Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); general habit. Note the long, 'snaking', inflorescenses. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.
TitleHabit
CaptionStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); general habit. Note the long, 'snaking', inflorescenses. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.
Copyright©Forest & Kimm Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); general habit. Note the long, 'snaking', inflorescenses. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.
HabitStachytarpheta cayennensis (blue snakeweed); general habit. Note the long, 'snaking', inflorescenses. Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, USA. September, 2009.©Forest & Kimm Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

  • Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl

Preferred Common Name

  • blue snakeweed

Other Scientific Names

  • Stachytarpheta australis Moldenke
  • Stachytarpheta dichotoma (Ruiz Lopez & Pavon) Vahl
  • Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Salisb.) Sims
  • Valerianoides cayennensis (Rich.) Kuntze
  • Verbena cayennensis Rich.

International Common Names

  • English: blue porterweed; blue rat's tail; bluetop; branched porterweed; brazilian tea; cayenne porterweed; cayenne snakeweed; false verbena; joee; nettleleaf porterweed; nettleleaf velvetberry; nettleleaf vervain; rattail; rough leaved false vervain
  • French: herbe à chenille; herbe bleue; queue de rat

Local Common Names

  • Spanish: piche de gato; rabo de zorro
  • Brazil: gervâo; gervao-urticante
  • Cook Islands: tiaki
  • Fiji: finak ne puak; lavenia; se karakarawa; serakawa; tumbutumbu; turulakaka
  • French Polynesia: piripiri
  • Japan: honagaso
  • Kiribati: te uti
  • Micronesia, Federated states of: ouchung; sakura
  • Nauru: edidubai; edidubaiy
  • Niue: mautofu samoa; motofu
  • Palau: louch beluu
  • Samoa: fua pepe; fua pepe; mautofu; mautofu tala; mautofu vao; taioti; vao pepe
  • Tonga: ‘i kuma; ‘iku ‘i kuma; hiku ‘i kuma
  • USA/Hawaii: oi; owi

EPPO code

  • STCHI (Stachytarpheta cayennensis)

Summary of Invasiveness

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S. cayennensis is a shrub native to South and Central America and the Caribbean. It was introduced widely introduced into several tropical countries around the world as an ornamental species due to its attractive blue flowers, but in some countries it has become invasive. S. cayennensis has a wide environmental tolerance and often invades disturbed areas where it can outcompete native flora. It is invasive in many Pacific islands and is regarded as a noxious weed in the Northern Territory, Australia and is increasing in abundance in Florida, USA. According to a risk assessment this species is regarded as being highly invasive (score 20 = high risk) (PIER, 2015).

Taxonomic Tree

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  • Domain: Eukaryota
  •     Kingdom: Plantae
  •         Phylum: Spermatophyta
  •             Subphylum: Angiospermae
  •                 Class: Dicotyledonae
  •                     Order: Lamiales
  •                         Family: Verbenaceae
  •                             Genus: Stachytarpheta
  •                                 Species: Stachytarpheta cayennensis

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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S. cayennensis belongs to the Verbenaceae family which comprises around 100 genera. The genus Stachytarpheta has undergone a series of taxonomic revisions that are further complicated by putative hybrids (Wilson et al., 2009). A total of 32 synonyms of S. cayennensis, including varieties, have been reported (The Plant List, 2013). Further details of the taxonomic history can be found in Munir (1992).

A number of species within the genus Stachytarpheta are also known to be invasive weeds.

Stachy(s) (a spike, originally an ear of corn) describes the elongate inflorescence, and tarphy (thick) refers to the thickened or densely flowered flower stalks. The plant was named after the capital of French Guiana, Cayenne.

The genus Stachytarpheta contains about 65 species, mostly from the American tropics. Many of which are regarded as being weedy throughout the tropics and subtropics. The closely related species S. jamaicensis is similar in appearance to S. cayennensis and the common names for these species are often used interchangeably.

Description

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S. cayennensis is a perennial evergreen herb or subshrub which can reach heights of 2.5 m. It has a woody glabrous stem with several branches. Leaves opposite, membranous, elliptic to broadly elliptic or ovate, 4-8 cm long, 2-4.5 cm wide, upper surface rugose, both surfaces glabrous or occasionally lower surface with a few scattered hairs usually along the veins and margins, margins sharply and coarsely serrate, the teeth conspicuously divergent, apex acute, base cuneate, petioles 0.5-2 cm long. Spikes slender, rachis flexuous to erect or somewhat nodding, 14-40 cm long, ca. 2.5 mm in diameter, the furrows somewhat shallow, nearly as wide as the rachis, bracts lanceolate, ca. 7 mm long; calyx ca. 7 mm long, the teeth subequal; corolla usually dark purplish blue with a paler center, the tube 7-8 mm long (Wagner et al., 1999).

Plant Type

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Broadleaved
Perennial
Seed propagated
Shrub

Distribution

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The native range of S. cayennensis includes much of the Americas, from Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, through tropical South America to southern Brazil (Weeds of Australia, 2011).

This species has been introduced into all of the continents with tropical and subtropical climates between 30° N and 30° S parallels.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022
Continent/Country/Region Distribution Last Reported Origin First Reported Invasive Reference Notes

Africa

CameroonPresentIntroduced
GhanaPresentIntroduced
LiberiaPresentIntroduced
MauritiusPresentIntroduced
MayottePresentIntroducedInvasive
MozambiquePresentIntroduced
NigeriaPresentIntroduced
RéunionPresentIntroducedInvasive
SeychellesPresentIntroducedAlphonse Island, Coetivy Island
Sierra LeonePresentIntroduced
UgandaPresentIntroduced
ZimbabwePresentIntroduced1977

Asia

British Indian Ocean Territory
-Chagos ArchipelagoPresentIntroducedDiego Garcia Island
ChinaPresentIntroduced
IndiaPresentIntroduced
-KeralaPresent
IndonesiaPresentIntroduced
JapanPresentIntroduced
MalaysiaPresentIntroduced
SingaporePresentIntroducedInvasive
Sri LankaPresentIntroduced
TaiwanPresentIntroduced1967
ThailandPresentIntroduced

North America

Antigua and BarbudaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
BarbadosPresent, Few occurrencesNative
BelizePresent, Few occurrencesNative
Costa RicaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
CubaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
DominicaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
Dominican RepublicPresent, Few occurrencesNative
El SalvadorPresentNative
GrenadaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
GuadeloupePresent, Few occurrencesNative
GuatemalaPresent, Few occurrencesNativeAlta Verapaz, Chimaltenango, Izabal, Petén
HaitiPresent, Few occurrencesNative
HondurasPresent, Few occurrencesNativeIslas de la Bahía
JamaicaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
MartiniquePresent, Few occurrencesNative
MexicoPresent, Few occurrencesNativeCampeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz, Yucatan
MontserratPresent, Few occurrencesNative
NicaraguaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
PanamaPresent, Few occurrencesNativeCanal Area, Chiriquí, Coclé, Colón, Darién, Panamá, Veraguas
Puerto RicoPresent, Few occurrencesNative
Saint LuciaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesPresent, Few occurrencesNative
Trinidad and TobagoPresent, Few occurrencesNative
United StatesPresentPresent based on regional distribution.
-FloridaPresentIntroduced
-HawaiiPresentIntroducedInvasiveHawaii, Kauai, Lanai, Maui, Molokai and Oahu islands

Oceania

American SamoaPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
AustraliaPresentIntroducedInvasive
-Northern TerritoryPresentIntroducedInvasive
-QueenslandPresentIntroducedInvasive
-Western AustraliaPresentIntroducedInvasive
Christmas IslandPresentIntroduced
Cook IslandsPresentIntroduced
Federated States of MicronesiaPresentIntroduced
FijiPresentIntroduced
French PolynesiaPresentIntroducedInvasiveMangareva, Hiva Oa, Tahuata, Ua Huka, Huahine, Moorea, Mopelia Atoll, Raiatea, Manuae, Taha'a, Tahiti, Tupai, Makatea, Niau Atoll, Rangiroa Atoll, Takapoto Atoll, Tikehau Atoll, Toau Atoll, Raivavae, Rapa, Rurutu and Tubuai islands
GuamPresentIntroduced
KiribatiPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasiveGilbert Islands, Phoenix Islands, Line Islands
Marshall IslandsPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
NauruPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
New CaledoniaPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
NiuePresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
Northern Mariana IslandsPresentIntroduced
PalauPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
Papua New GuineaPresentIntroduced
SamoaPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
Solomon IslandsPresentIntroduced
TokelauPresentIntroduced
TongaPresent, Few occurrencesIntroduced
TuvaluPresentIntroduced
United States Minor Outlying Islands
-Wake IslandPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
VanuatuPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive
Wallis and FutunaPresent, Few occurrencesIntroducedInvasive

South America

ArgentinaPresent, Few occurrencesNativeCorrientes, Entre Rios, Jujuy, Misiones, Salta
BoliviaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
BrazilPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-AcrePresent, Few occurrencesNative
-AmapaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-AmazonasPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-BahiaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-CearaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-GoiasPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-MaranhaoPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-Mato GrossoPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-Minas GeraisPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-ParaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-ParanaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-PernambucoPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-Rio de JaneiroPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-Rio Grande do SulPresent, Few occurrencesNative
-Sao PauloPresent, Few occurrencesNative
ChilePresentPresent based on regional distribution.
-Easter IslandPresentIntroduced
ColombiaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
EcuadorPresent, Few occurrencesNativeEl Oro, Galapagos Islands, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Rios, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Pichincha, Zamora-Chinchipe
-Galapagos IslandsPresentIntroducedInvasiveFloreana, Isabela, San Cristobal and Santa Cruz islands
French GuianaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
GuyanaPresent, Few occurrencesNative
ParaguayPresent, Few occurrencesNative
PeruPresent, Few occurrencesNativeAmazonas, Cajamarca, Cuzco, Huanuco, Junin, Loreto, Madre de Dios, San Martin, Ucayali
SurinamePresentNative
VenezuelaPresent, Few occurrencesNativeAmazonas, Anzoátegui, Apure, Aragua, Barinas, Bolívar, Carabobo, Cojedes, Delta Amacuro, Distrito Federal, Guárico, Lara, Mérida, Miranda, Monagas, Nueva Esparta, Portuguesa, Sucre, Táchira, Trujillo, Yaracuy, Zulia

History of Introduction and Spread

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The majority of introductions throughout the world are as a result of intentional introductions for ornamental purposes. S. cayennensis produces an attractive blue flower which is appealing to bees and butterflies.

In 1868 S. cayennensis was introduced into New Caledonia as fooder for livestock (Blanfort et al., 2008).

Risk of Introduction

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The risk of S. cayennensis being introduced into new areas is fairly high as seeds of this species are readily available for sale on the internet. In addition to this, it can disperse locally by winds, attachment of seeds to vehicles and animals or as a contaminant in hay (Weeds of Australia, 2011). A risk assessment conducted by PIER (2015) gave this species a high score of 20 and therefore would reject its import due to its invasive tendencies.

Habitat

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S. cayennensis is common in open field like pastures, crop fields, moorlands, fallow lands, roadsides and wastelands. This species is also tolerant to shade and may invade low density forests. S. cayennensis grows on every type of soils, including infertile and dry soils. Although it can tolerate drought, this species grows best in moist, deep, fertile soils in disturbed areas (HEAR, 2012).

Habitat List

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CategorySub-CategoryHabitatPresenceStatus
Terrestrial
Terrestrial ManagedCultivated / agricultural land Present, no further details Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial ManagedManaged forests, plantations and orchards Present, no further details
Terrestrial ManagedManaged grasslands (grazing systems) Present, no further details Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial ManagedDisturbed areas Principal habitat Natural
Terrestrial ManagedRail / roadsides Present, no further details Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial Natural / Semi-naturalNatural forests Present, no further details
Terrestrial Natural / Semi-naturalNatural grasslands Principal habitat Natural
Terrestrial Natural / Semi-naturalScrub / shrublands Present, no further details

Hosts/Species Affected

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S. cayennensis may outcompete smaller native plant species and crops dedicated to livestock are often affected by smothering. In Australia, this species is commonly found as a weed of pastures and sugarcane (Saccharum species) (DAFF, 2014).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant nameFamilyContextReferences
Theobroma cacao (cocoa)MalvaceaeUnknown
Carvalho et al. (2018)

Climate

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ClimateStatusDescriptionRemark
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate Preferred Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually
Af - Tropical rainforest climate Preferred > 60mm precipitation per month
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer Tolerated < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate Tolerated < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year Tolerated Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer Tolerated Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter Tolerated Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)Latitude South (°S)Altitude Lower (m)Altitude Upper (m)
30 30

Soil Tolerances

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Soil reaction

  • acid
  • alkaline
  • neutral

Soil texture

  • heavy
  • light
  • medium

Special soil tolerances

  • infertile
  • saline

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal

Seeds of S. cayennensis may be dispersed over short distances by rain and run-off. There is some indications that this species may reproduce and spread locally by vegetative propagation (PIER, 2015).

Vector Transmission

Seeds of this species may become attached to the fur of animals and translocated over short distances into new areas (Weeds of Australia, 2011).

Accidental Introduction

It is believed that the spread of this species in Queensland, Australia is a result of accidental introductions via fodder, hay and contaminated pasture seed (Smith, 2002). Seeds may also be introduced into new areas in garden waste or by attachment of seeds to clothing, vehicles and machinery (Weeds of Australia, 2011).

Intentional Introduction

S. cayennensis was intentionally introduced into a number of countries as an ornamental species. This species produced an attractive blue flower which is appealing to bees and butterflies. Seeds of this species are still readily available for sale on the internet.

Pathway Causes

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CauseNotesLong DistanceLocalReferences
Garden waste disposal Yes
Internet salesSeveral companies sell seeds for ornamental purposes Yes
Seed trade Yes

Impact Summary

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CategoryImpact
Economic/livelihood Negative
Environment (generally) Negative
Human health Positive

Environmental Impact

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Impact on Habitats

S. cayennensis is unpalatable to livestock and in areas with heavy grazing this species may outcompete surrounding species (HEAR, 2013).

Impact on Biodiversity

This species is opportunistic and can readily invade disturbed areas. It can form dense thickets which may outcompete or smother native plant species (PIER, 2015). In Florida this species is regarded as a Category II plant, a species which has increased in abundance but has not yet altered plant communities (FLEPPC, 2009).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness
  • Proved invasive outside its native range
  • Highly adaptable to different environments
  • Pioneering in disturbed areas
  • Tolerant of shade
Impact outcomes
  • Reduced native biodiversity
Impact mechanisms
  • Competition - monopolizing resources
  • Competition - shading
  • Hybridization
Likelihood of entry/control
  • Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
  • Difficult to identify/detect in the field

Uses

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Economic Value

There is no information available on the economic value of S. cayennensis. As an ornamental this species is sold in the nurseries and via the internet and therefore has some economic value.

Social Benefit

In Latin America, S. cayennensis is utilised in traditional medicine to treat symptoms of malaria, treat dysentery and liver disorders, to relieve fevers and to act as a sedative (Taylor, 2012). The plant contains flavonoids, terpenes, phenols and steroids and has been found to have anti-inflammatory and anti-malarial properties (Okoye et al., 2014).

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

  • Fodder/animal feed

Environmental

  • Ornamental

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

  • Source of medicine/pharmaceutical

Ornamental

  • Potted plant
  • Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Others species within the genus Stachytarpheta closely resemble S. cayennensis. These include S. jamaicensis, S. australis and S. mutabilis. The colour of the flower is often used to differentiate between the species. The flowers of S. jamaicensis are light blue or mauve, S. australis has light blue or white flowers and the stem and lower face of leaves are pubescent and S. mutabilis is characterized by having larger pink or red flowers with a hairy stem.

Hybridization between the closely related species S. cayennensis and S. jamaicensis may occur. The hybrids more closely resemble S. jamaicensis, but the corollas are darker in colour than typical in S. jamaicensis. The habit is more erect, and the leaves are usually more ovate, darker green and with more divergent teeth similar to S. cayennensis (Wagner et al., 1999). S. cayennensis may also hybridize with S. mutabilis. A number of hybrids have been found to have naturalized in Queensland (Weeds of Australia, 2011).

S. cayennensis is also similar in appearance to Verbena litoralis and V. officinalis however these have four stamens instead of two with smaller flowers which are less than 4 mm across (Weeds of Australia, 2011).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

SPS Measures

In Australia, S. cayennensis is regarded as an environmental weed and regulations are in place in a number of territories to prevent its spread. In New South Wales this species is restricted, meaning that it cannot be sold or distributed within the territory. In the Northern Territroy this species has been declared a noxious weed. This means that the spread of this species must be controlled and that introductions are prohibited (Weeds of Australia, 2012).

S.cayennensis is included in a list of the 33 most invasive species of the South Pacific (Blanfort et al., 2008).

Control

Physical/Mechanical Control

Manual removal of seedlings by hand can be effective for small populations, ensuring the large roots are also removed. S. cayennensis may also be controlled by chipping or cultivation (ploughing, grubbing and hoeing) (Swarbrick, 1997). Planting of local and vigorous pasture plants, such as legumes, may compete with S. cayennensis and prevent re-establishment.

Biological Control

No biological control agents have been released for S. cayennensis, however possible agents are discussed by Waterhouse and Norris (1987). The potential for biological control of the closely related species S. jamaicensis is discussed in detail by Cock et al. (1985).

Chemical Control

It has been suggested that S. cayennensis is sensitive to foliar application of 2,4-D or MCPA (Motooka et al., 2003). It is however, less sensitive to other hormone type herbicides, although drizzle application of triclopyr in water have been found to be effective in trials in Palau (Motooka et al., 2003). Some control using glyphosate has been recorded. The best control of S. cayennensis can be achieved during the summer months when plants are actively growing (Weeds of Australia, 2011).

IPM

For large areas of S. cayennensis it is recommended that plants are mechanically removed and treated with herbicides. The best time to cut plants is before flowering. It is necessary to follow up and retreat areas with herbicides to provide effective control (Weeds of Australia, 2011).

References

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Blanfort V; Desmoulins F; Bourgeois TLe; Guiglion R, 2008. Plantes envahissantes et à conflit d'intérêt des pâturages de Nouvelle-Calédonie ([English title not available]). Nouméa, New Caledonia: Institut Agronomiquenéo-Calédonien Editeur, 206 pp.

Carnevali G; Tapia-Muñoz JL; Duno Stefano Rde; Ramírez Morillo, 2010. [English title not available]. (Flora ilustrada de la Peninsula Yucatán: listado florístico.) . Mérida, Mexico: Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, 326 pp.

Carvalho, V. C. de, Andrade, T. C. G. R. de, Silva, M. C. de C., Santos, R. de S., Pereira, D. L., 2018. Phytosociological survey of weeds in cacao plantation. Amazonian Journal of Plant Research, 2(2), 189-194. doi: 10.26545/ajpr.2018.b00023x

Chong K; Hugh TW; Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp.

Cock MJW (ed.), 1985. A review of biological control of pests in the Commonwealth Caribbean and Bermuda up to 1982. Farnham Royal, United Kingdom; Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, xii + 218 pp.

Comité français l'Union Internationale pour Conservation Nature France de la de la en, 2013. [English title not available]. (Les espéces envahissantes en outre-mer.) . http://www.especes-envahissantes-outremer.fr/autoComplete/index.php

Cowan CP, 1983. [English title not available]. (Flora de Tabasco. Listados floríst.) México, 1:123 pp.

Davidse G; Sousa Sánchez M; Knapp S; Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae. Flora Mesoamericana, 4:1-533.

Department of Agriculture; fisheries and forestry biosecurity Australia (DAFF), 2014. Snakeweed, Stachytarpheta spp. https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/54392/IPA-Snakeweed-PP52.pdf

Dodson CH; Gentry AH, 1978. Flora of the Rio Palenque Science Center, Los Rios, Ecuador. Selbyana, 4:xxx + 628 pp.

Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2013. Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council's 2013 list of invasive plant species. Florida, USA: Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. http://www.fleppc.org/list/2013/FLEPPCPlantList2013-PRINTABLEwithlinkstoCAIPpages.pdf

Forzza R, 2010. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/

Fosberg F; Sachet M, 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution, 15 pp.

Fosberg F; Sachet MH, 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92. Washington, USA: Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, 29 pp.

Fosberg FR, 1990. A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 330. Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution, 100 pp.

Fosberg FR; Sachet M-H; Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian Dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:1-295.

Fosberg FR; Stoddart DR, 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin, 393:60 pp.

Foster RC, 1958. A catalogue of the ferns and flowering plants of Bolivia (Contributions of the Gray Herbarium no. 184), 1-223.

Funk V; Hollowell T; Berry P; Kelloff C; Alexander SN, 2007. Checklist of the plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 584 pp.

Gargominy O; Bouchet P; Pascal M; Jaffre T; Tourneu JC, 1996. [English title not available]. (Consequences des introductions d'especes animals et vegetales sur la biodiversite en Nouvelle-Caledonie.) Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie), 51:375-401.

Gibson DN, 1970. Verbenaceae. Flora of Guatemala - Part IX, Numbers 1 and 2. Fieldiana, Botany, 24(9/1-2):167-236.

Gilman EF, 2007. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis blue porterweed. Florida, USA: University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FP/FP55900.pdf

Hancock IR; Henderson CP, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. Research Bulletin No. 7. Honiara, Solomon Islands: Dodo Creek Research Station.

HEAR, 2012. Alien species in Hawaii. Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/index.html

Hokche O; Berry PE; Huber O, 2008. Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela (New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela). Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela, 860 pp.

Holm LG; Pancho JV; Herberger JP; Plucknett DL, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 391 pp.

Idárraga-Piedrahita A; Ortiz RDC; Callejas Posada R; Merello M; (eds), 2011. . Medellín, Colombia: Universidad de Antioquia.

Jørgensen PM; Nee MH; Beck (eds) SG, 2014. [English title not available]. (Catalogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia.) Monographs in systematic botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press.

Lamberson JO, 1982. A guide to terrestrial plants of Enewetak Atoll. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Pacific Science Information Center, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 73 pp.

Lavergne C, 2006. List des especes exotiques envahissantes a la Reunion [List of exotic invasive species on Reunion.]. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER). http://www.hear.org/pier/references/pierref000519.htm

Lawesson JE; Adsersen H; Bentley P, 1987. An updated and annotated check list of the vascular plants of the Galapagos Islands, 16. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 74 pp.

MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.) Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, unpaginated.

Meyer JY, 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]). Papeete, Tahiti: Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche, 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Mito T; Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research, 8(2):171-191.

Motooka P; Castro L; Nelson D; Nagai G; Ching L, 2003. Weeds of Hawaii's Pastures and Natural Areas; an identification and management guide. Manoa, Hawaii, USA: College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii.

Munir AA, 1992. A taxonomic revision of the genus Stachytarpheta (Verbenaceae) in Australia. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 14(2):133-168.

Nelson C; Proctor GR, 1994. Vascular plants of the Caribbean Swan Islands of Honduras. Brenesia, No. 41/42:73-80.

Okoye TC; Akah PA; Ezike AC; Uzor PF; Odoh UE; Igboeme SO; Onwuka UB; Okafor SN, 2014. Immunomodulatory effects of Stachytarpheta cayennensis leaf extract and its synergistic effect with artesunate. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 14(376):(5 October 2014). http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6882-14-376.pdf

PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Pool A; Rueda RM, 2001. Verbenaceae. (Verbenaceae.) In: Flora de Nicaragua, 85(3) [ed. by Stevens, W. D. \Ulloa, C. \Pool, A. \Montiel, O. M.]. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press, 2497-2525.

Ragone D; Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, 91 pp.

Renner SS; Balslev H; Holm-Nielsen LB, 1990. Flowering plants of Amazonian Ecuador - a checklist (AUU reports). Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 241 pp.

Robertson SA; Fosberg FR, 1983. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles, 273:253 pp. [Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands.]

Shine C; Reaser JK; Gutierrez AT, 2003. Invasive alien species in the Austral-Pacific Region: National Reports & Directory of Resources.

Smith NM, 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia - a field guide., Australia: Environment Centre NT, Inc, 112 pp.

Sousa Sánchez M; Cabrera Cano EF, 1983. Flora de Quintana Roo. Listados Florísticos de México. 1-100.

Space JC; Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 51.

Space JC; Flynn T, 2000. Report to the Government of Niue on invasive plant species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 34.

Space JC; Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 80 pp.

Space JC; Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, 103 pp.

Space JC; Lorence DH; LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on invasive plant species. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 233 pp.

Space JC; Waterhouse BM; Miles JE; Tiobech J; Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. Technical paper No. 209. Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission.

Sykes WR, 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin 200. p. 238.

Sykes WR, 1970. Contributions to the flora of Niue. New Zealand Department. Sci. Indust. Res. Bull. 200: 1-321.

Taylor L, 2012. Raintree, tropical plant database. Milam County, Texas, USA. http://www.rain-tree.com/

Thaman RR; Fosberg FR; Manner HI; Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392:1-223.

The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org

Topp JMW, 1988. An annotated check list of the flora of Diego Garcia, British Ocean Territory. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 313.

Troncoso NS, 1979. Verbenaceae. (Verbenaceae.) In: Flora Ilustrada de Entre Rios, 5 [ed. by Burkart, A. E.]. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, 229-294.

USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Vargas CC, 1943. La flora de la región descubierta por la expedición de "The Vicking Fund". Revista Univ. (Cuzco), 84:1-19.

Wagner WL; Herbst DR; Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press/Bishop Museum Press, 1919 pp.

Waterhouse DF; Norris KR, 1987. Biological control: Pacific prospects. viii + 454pp

Weber E, 2003. Invasive plant species of the world: A reference guide to environmental weeds. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 548 pp.

Weeds of Australia, 2011. Dark blue snakeweed, Stachytarpheta cayennensis. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Stachytarpheta_cayennensis

Wester L, 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin, 287:1-38.

Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica (online), 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf

Whistler WA; Atherton J, 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. Unpublished technical report. 76 pp.

Wiggins IL; Porter DM, 1971. Flora of the Galapagos Islands. Stanford, USA: Stanford University Press.

Wilson SB; Knox GW; Muller KL; Freyre R; Deng ZN, 2009. Seed production and viability of eight porterweed selections grown in northern and southern Florida. HortScience, 44(7):1842-1849. http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/

Yuncker TG, 1959. Plants of Tonga. Bishop Museum Bulletin, 220:343 pp.

Distribution References

Anon, 2014. [English title not available]. (Catalogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia). In: Monographs in systematic botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, [ed. by Jørgensen PM, Nee MH, Beck SG]. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Carnevali G, Tapia-Muñoz JL, Duno Stefano Rde, Ramírez M, 2010. [English title not available]. (Flora ilustrada de la Peninsula Yucatán: listado florístico)., Mérida, Mexico: Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán. 326 pp.

Carvalho V C de, Andrade T C G R de, Silva M C de C, Santos R de S, Pereira D L, 2018. Phytosociological survey of weeds in cacao plantation. Amazonian Journal of Plant Research. 2 (2), 189-194. DOI:10.26545/ajpr.2018.b00023x

Chong K, Hugh TW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Cirilo N, Proctor G R, 1994. Vascular plants of the Caribbean Swan Islands of Honduras. Brenesia. 73-80.

Cowan CP, 1983. [English title not available]. (Flora de Tabasco). In: Listados floríst. 1 México: 123 pp.

Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. (Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae). In: Flora Mesoamericana, 4 1-533.

Dodson C H, Gentry A H, 1978. Flora of the Rio Palenque Science Center, Los Rios, Ecuador. Selbyana. xxx + 628 pp.

Forzza R, 2010. List of species of the Flora of Brazil. (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil)., http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/

Fosberg F R, Sachet M H, Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica. 1-295.

Fosberg F, Sachet M, 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123, Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 15 pp.

Fosberg F, Sachet MH, 1962. Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 92, Washington, USA: Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences. 29 pp.

Fosberg FR, 1990. A review of the natural history of the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 330., Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 100 pp.

Fosberg FR, Stoddart DR, 1994. Flora of the Phoenix Islands, central Pacific. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 393 60 pp.

Foster R C, 1958. A catalogue of the ferns and flowering plants of Bolivia. 223 pp.

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander S N, 2007. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 55, 584 pp.

Gargominy O, Bouchet P, Pascal M, Jaffre T, Tourneu J C, 1996. The consequences of introducing animal and plant species on the biodiversity of New Caledonia. (Consequences des introductions d'especes animals et vegetales sur la biodiversite en Nouvelle-Caledonie.). Revue d'Ecologie (La Terre et la Vie). 375-401.

Gibson DN, 1970. Verbenaceae. Flora of Guatemala - Part IX, Numbers 1 and 2. In: Fieldiana, Botany, 24 (9/1-2) 167-236.

Hancock I R, Henderson C P, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. In: Research Bulletin - Dodo Creek Research Station, Honiara, Solomon Islands: ii + 203 pp.

Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela. (Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela)., Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela. 860 pp.

Holm L, Pancho J V, Herberger J P, Plucknett D L, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, Chichester (), Brisbane, Toronto, UK: John Wiley and Sons. xlix + 391 pp.

Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz R D C, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. Flora de Antioquia. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares, vol. 2: Listado de las plantas vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia. Medellín, Colombia: Universidad de Antioquia. 939 pp.

Lamberson JO, 1982. A guide to terrestrial plants of Enewetak Atoll., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Pacific Science Information Center, Bernice P. Bishop Museum. 73 pp.

Lavergne C, 2006. List of exotic species introduced to Reunion. (List des especes exotiques envahissantes a la Reunion.). In: List des especes exotiques envahissantes a la Reunion, Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER). unpaginated. http://www.hear.org/pier/references/pierref000519.htm

Lawesson JE, Adsersen H, Bentley P, 1987. An updated and annotated check list of the vascular plants of the Galapagos Islands., 16 Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. 74 pp.

MacKee H S, 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. unpaginated.

Meyer JY, 2007. [English title not available]. (Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire)., Papeete, Tahiti, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche. 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf

Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and new regulations for prevention of their adverse effects. In: Global Environmental Research, 8 (2) 171-191.

Munir AA, 1992. A taxonomic revision of the genus Stachytarpheta (Verbenaceae) in Australia. In: Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 14 (2) 133-168.

PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Pool A, Rueda RM, 2001. Verbenaceae. (Verbenaceae.). In: Flora de Nicaragua, 85 (3) [ed. by Stevens WD, Ulloa C, Pool A, Montiel OM]. St Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 2497-2525.

Ragone D, Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa., Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.

Renner SS, Balslev H, Holm-Nielsen LB, 1990. Flowering plants of Amazonian Ecuador - a checklist (AUU reports)., Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. 241 pp.

Robertson SA, Fosberg FR, 1983. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles. In: Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. List of plants collected on Coetivy Island, Seychelles, 273 253 pp.

Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Shine C, Reaser JK, Gutierrez AT, 2003. Invasive alien species in the Austral-Pacific Region: National Reports & Directory of Resources.,

Space JC, Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. 80 pp.

Space JC, Imada, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum. 103 pp.

Space JC, Lorence DH, LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on invasive plant species., Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. 233 pp.

Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.

Swapna Vijayan, Joy C M, 2016. Current distribution of invasive alien flora of Arookkutty Panchayath, Kerala, India. Indian Journal of Ecology. 43 (1), 305-307. http://indianecologicalsociety.com/society/indian-ecology-journals/

Swarbrick JT, 1997. Weeds of the Pacific Islands. In: Technical paper No. 209, Noumea, New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission.

Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 1-223.

Topp JMW, 1988. An annotated check list of the flora of Diego Garcia, British Ocean Territory. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 313,

Troncoso NS, 1979. (Verbenaceae). In: Flora Ilustrada de Entre Rios, 5 [ed. by Burkart AE]. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. 229-294.

USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

Vargas CC, 1943. (La flora de la región descubierta por la expedición de "The Vicking Fund). In: Revista Univ. (Cuzco), 84 1-19.

Wester L, 1985. Checklist of the vascular plants of the northern Line Islands. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 287 1-38.

Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory., Isle Botanica. 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf

Whistler WA, Atherton J, 1997. Botanical survey of the Huvalu Forest Conservation Area, Niue. In: Unpublished technical report, 76 pp.

Wiggins I L, Porter D M, 1971. Flora of the Galapagos Islands. Stanford, USA: Stanford University Press.

Yuncker TG, 1959. Plants of Tonga. In: Bishop Museum Bulletin, 220 343 pp.

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31/03/2015 Original text by:

Erwan Le Nezet, Service d'Etat de l'Agriculture, de la Forêt et de la Pêch, Wallis and Futuna

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