Sporobolus africanus
(rat’s tail grass)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Sporobolus africanus (rat’s tail grass); habit on roadside. Introduced, warm-season, perennial, erect, hairless and tufted grass, usually 40-90 cm tall. A native of Africa, it is found in disturbed or degraded, compacted areas (e.g. tracks, yards and around sheds). Australia. January 2011. Copyright ©Harry Rose/'Macleay Grass Man'/via flickr - CC BY 2.0	Habit	Sporobolus africanus (rat’s tail grass); habit on roadside. Introduced, warm-season, perennial, erect, hairless and tufted grass, usually 40-90 cm tall. A native of Africa, it is found in disturbed or degraded, compacted areas (e.g. tracks, yards and around sheds). Australia. January 2011.	©Harry Rose/'Macleay Grass Man'/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Title Habit Caption Sporobolus africanus (rat’s tail grass); habit on roadside, showing long, narrow, inflorescences. Australia. January 2011. Copyright ©Harry Rose/'Macleay Grass Man'/via flickr - CC BY 2.0	Habit	Sporobolus africanus (rat’s tail grass); habit on roadside, showing long, narrow, inflorescences. Australia. January 2011.	©Harry Rose/'Macleay Grass Man'/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Title Habit Caption Sporobolus africanus (rat’s tail grass); habit on roadside. Australia. March 2006. Copyright ©Harry Rose/'Macleay Grass Man'/via flickr - CC BY 2.0	Habit	Sporobolus africanus (rat’s tail grass); habit on roadside. Australia. March 2006.	©Harry Rose/'Macleay Grass Man'/via flickr - CC BY 2.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay

Preferred Common Name

• rat’s tail grass

Other Scientific Names

• Agrostis africana Poir.
• Agrostis capensis (L.) Lam.
• Sporobolus batesii A. Chev.
• Sporobolus capensis (P.Beauv.) Kunth
• Sporobolus capensis (Willd.) Kunth
• Sporobolus indicus (L.) R. Br.
• Sporobolus indicus var. africanus (Poir.) Jovet & Guedes
• Sporobolus indicus var. capensis (P. Beauv.) Engl.
• Sporobolus indicus var. cinereoviridis Baaijens
• Sporobolus linearis Mez
• Vilfa africana (Poir.) P.Beauv.
• Vilfa dianthera Steud.

International Common Names

• English: African dropseed grass; dropseed; rat’s tail; ratstail dropseed; rattail; rattail grass; smut grass; smutgrass; tough dropseed; tufty grass

Local Common Names

• Australia: dwarf Parramatta grass; Parramatta grass
• Cook Islands: matie nganga’ere
• French Polynesia: aretu
• Madagascar: ahitry
• Nigeria: goor; pagame
• Niue: motie hikutaha
• South Africa: matshiki; rotstert fynsaadgras; saadgras; taaipol; taaipolfynsaadgras; vleigras

Summary of Invasiveness

Sporobolus africanus is an invasive tussock grass native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is a grass of low palatability and regarded in Australia as a very serious and declared weed. It is dispersed very easily by several mechanisms and once established it can quickly dominate existing pastures, causing loss of productivity and reduced land values. Its presence may also be an indicator of reduced soil fertility and pasture mismanagement. Control on extensively grazed properties is problematic and every effort must be made to prevent its introduction to clean properties.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Sporobolus
•                                 Species: Sporobolus africanus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Sporobolus is a genus of about 160 grass species endemic to tropical and subtropical regions (Simon and Jacobs, 1999). The species present considerable taxonomic difficulties in identification, particularly those in the indicus complex (Pilger, 1956; Baaijens and Veldkamp, 1991) in which S. africanus is placed. In Australia, five alien invasive species of the indicus group (S. africanus, S. fertilis, S. jacquemontii [now considered a synonym of S. pyramidalis by the Plant List (2013)], S. natalensis and S. pyramidalis) are known collectively as the weedy sporobolus grasses (Bray and Officer, 2007; Palmer, 2012). The considerable difficulty in identifying these species has led to the development of molecular tools to assist (Shrestha et al., 2003; Shrestha et al., 2005; Peterson et al., 2014).

The generic name Sporobolus derives from the Greek words sporos meaning seed and bolos meaning to throw, referring to how the seeds are squeezed out of the fruits at maturity (Quattrocchi, 2006; Clifford and Bostock, 2007), which is reflected in one of the English common names ‘dropseed’. The specific epithet africanus refers to its origin in Africa.

Description

S. africanus is an erect, tough, caespitose, perennial tussock grass usually growing to 60 cm in height, but up to 1.1 m. According to Parsons and Cuthbertson (2001), stems are dark green, upright and slender. Leaves are dark green, glabrous, mostly occurring around the base, and are slender and stiff, to 18 cm long, acuminate and with in-rolled margins. The spike-like inflorescence, which is grey-green in colour, up to 35 cm long and 7 mm diameter and resembles a rat's tail, has many branches tightly packed against the main stem but sometimes interrupted near the base to expose the stem. Individual clusters of spikelets each have one floret which is about 2.5 mm long, with unequal outer bracts (glumes), and are closely arranged along the branches. The seeds are about 1 mm in diameter and brown. The roots are fibrous. 

Plant Type

Distribution

S. africanus originates in Africa, where it is found from South Africa, through East Africa to Ethiopia (van Oudtshoorn, 1999). It has been introduced into North and South America, southern Asia, Indonesia, Hawaii, the South Pacific islands, New Zealand and Australia (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001; USDA-ARS, 2016). In Australia it has a mainly coastal distribution stretching from Brisbane (Queensland) to Adelaide (South Australia), also occurring in Tasmania, coastal areas around Perth (Western Australia) and inland Northern Territory (Mallett, 2005). In Hawaii, S. africanus is naturalized on the main islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Kahoolawe and Hawaii (Wagner et al., 1990, 1999).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

In Australia, S. africanus was introduced into New South Wales early in the 19th century (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001), quite possibly deliberately as a pasture plant or as a contaminant in pasture seed. It established successfully around Sydney (hence its common name in Australia of Parramatta grass, Parramatta being a suburb of Sydney) and then spread to other coastal areas. It was introduced to and has become invasive on numerous Pacific islands, including Australia’s Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, as well as Hawaii, Niue and several islands in French Polynesia (Green, 1994; PIER, 2016).

It was first recorded in New Zealand in 1840 at the Bay of Plenty, from where it spread throughout the lowlands of North Island and the northern part of South Island (Allan, 1936; Campbell et al., 1999).

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

The risk of introduction of this plant should be considered high because there are several effective dispersal mechanisms for it. International movement would be more likely as a contaminant in pasture seed but could also occur through movement of machinery, fodder, livestock or animal skins. Regionally, as well as these mechanisms, dispersal can be effected by water, wild animals, vehicles and even people’s clothing.

Habitat

S. africanus is generally found in the tropics and subtropics, occasionally in temperate regions, with annual rainfalls of at least 700 mm (Campbell et al., 1999). In East Africa it has been found in medium altitude and montane woodland and forest, always in disturbed areas, roadsides and in grazed areas (Friis and Vollesen, 2005). In South Africa, it is found in moist, cool-temperate grasslands (Werger and Coetzee, 1978).

At least two bioclimatic models have been generated: a BIOCLIM model based on New Zealand data (Campbell et al., 1999) and a CLIMEX model reported by Walton (2001) and Palmer (2012). S. africanus is reported from a wide range of soil types, including alluvial and volcanic soils (Walton, 2001). In New Zealand it is associated with steeper land and lower fertility soils (Campbell et al., 1996). In Australia it has become a widespread and common weed of roadsides, recreation areas and wasteland (Australian Weeds Committee, 2016).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The genus Sporobolus is cytogenetically complex and basic chromosome numbers of x = 6, 9 and 10 are present. Reported haploid chromosome numbers of n = 12, 18, 24, 24, 30, 36 or 48 for S. africanus (Spies et al., 1991; Simon and Jacobs, 1999) suggest a basic chromosome number of x = 6 for this species. Using a novel RAPD-PCR technique for generating genetic markers to differentiate Sporobolus species in Australia, Shrestha et al. (2005) found that S. africanus exhibited low within-species genetic diversity compared to S. natalensis, S. fertilis, S. sessilis, S. elongatus and S. laxus, which had high genetic diversity.

Reproductive Biology

This grass is a prolific seeder and is capable of producing up to 3600 seeds/m² per year. The mucilaginous pericarp of the seed, a feature common to all Sporobolus spp., is an important adaption for dispersal. S. africanus can flower throughout the year but mostly spring to autumn (Simon and Jacobs, 1999).

Physiology and Phenology

In common with the other weedy sporobolus grasses, S. africanus has many traits within its life cycle which make it highly adapted for successful invasion and establishment: long plant lifespan, seedlings and plants unpalatable and difficult to kill, high seed production, large seed banks, drought tolerance and effective seed dispersal.

S. africanus has a C4 photosynthetic pathway of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase subtype (Campbell et al., 1999). Species falling into this subtype are most abundant in tropical and subtropical areas of intermediate rainfall (Wand et al., 2001).

Associations

In a region of moist, cool-temperate grasslands in South Africa, S. africanus was found associated with the grasses Eragrostis curvula, Cynodon dactylon and Hyparrhenia hirta, as well as several forbs, including Walafrida densiflora, Solanum spp. and Wahlenbergia caledonica [Wahlenbergia undulata], in secondary grasslands on previously cultivated lands that had been left fallow (Werger and Coetzee, 1978). The plant communities (i) Sporobolus africanus - Hyparrhenia hirta - Eucalyptus camaldulensis woodland, (ii) Sporobolus africanus - Hyparrhenia hirta - Cynodon dactylon grassland and (iii) Sporobolus africanus - Hyparrhenia hirta - Senecio isatideus grassland were identified in a study carried out in Gauteng province, South Africa, by Tuckett (2013).

Environmental Requirements

S. africanus grows mainly in tropical and subtropical areas but can also be found in temperate regions with moderate to high rainfall (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001). It favours sites with compacted soil, such as road verges and tracks, but will also invade pasture and sandy coastal sites (Eurobodalla Shire Council, 2016), especially those sites receiving water run-off (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001). The species is well suited to growing in soils of low fertility and its occurrence in pastures may indicate that the level of soil fertility has fallen below that required by the more palatable and nutritious grasses (Burbidge, 1970).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile
• shallow

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

Surveys of natural enemies of Sporobolus species in southern Africa were undertaken to identify potential biological control agents for controlling alien Sporobolus in Australia. While around 70 phytophagous insects and 23 plant pathogens were identified, only the leaf smut pathogen Ustilago sporoboli-indici and the stem wasp Tetramesa sp. showed potential. Both, however, were discarded as the smut proved pathogenic to native Australian Sporobolus species, while the wasp could not be reared in captivity (Palmer et al., 2008).

In Hawaii, the grass webworm Herpetogramma licarsisalis was found in 1968 feeding on pasture grasses, including S. africanus on Maui (Davis, 1969). 

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

Seeds of S. africanus can be distributed in mud, animal faeces and flowing water (Walton, 2001).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Mature seeds become sticky when damp and are dispersed by attachment to animal fur, clothes, vehicles and machinery (Walton, 2001).

Accidental Introduction

Seeds are also distributed as contaminants of seed and produce. In pasture areas, potential of spread is high via pasture seed and hay, adherence directly or in soil attached to milk tankers, fertilizer trucks, slashers and other farm machinery, and in irrigation channels (Walton, 2001). In the UK, scattered occurrences of S. africanus in the wild are attributed to seeds introduced with wool shoddy (Online Atlas of the British & Irish Flora, 2016).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Plant Trade

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

In southern Australian states, S. africanus has become a serious weed of irrigated pastures. In Victoria, farmers have reported annual dairy herd milk production dropping by hundreds of litres when pastures became dominated by this grass, its toughness and poor nutritive value affecting cow performance. The texture of the leaves and stems are particularly hard and horses have been known to loosen teeth grazing it as they have to pull rather than break the grass (Breakwell, 1923). This degradation of productive pastures can lead to subsequent reductions in land values for affected farms and regions.

In Nigeria, it is a weed of plantation crops (Komolafe, 1976). Costs of control in crops and pastures can be high.

Environmental Impact

Impact on Habitats

S. africanus is regarded as an environmental weed in Queensland and New South Wales in Australia (Queensland Government, 2016). It invades pastures and replaces (outcompetes) productive grasses and is known to dominate in wet, swampy areas

Impact on Biodiversity

In Hawaii, S. africanus is one of many alien plant species threatening the existence of native plant species. On Maui, the threatened native Bidens micrantha subsp. kalealaha, an erect perennial herb, is restricted to 4 populations on the leeward east side of the island, comprising no more than 2000 individuals. It is threatened by competition from a variety of invasive plant species, especially in conjunction with ecosystem damage caused by feral goats and cattle. Associated alien plant species include Holcus lanatus, Hypochaeris radicata, Oenothera stricta and S. africanus. Alien plant cover within Haleakala National Park slows the recovery of B. micrantha subsp. kalealaha, and establishment of new individuals is largely limited to stream beds, talus slopes, etc., where competition with alien grasses is not so intense (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997).

On Kauai, Brighamia insignis, classed according to the IUCN Red List as critically endangered D (IUCN, 2015), exists as 5 populations comprising 60-70 individuals in total. Commonly known as ‘cabbage on a stick’, it occurs in lowland dry grassland, is a member of the Campanulaceae family, grows 1 to 5 m tall and produces fragrant yellow flowers. The major threats to this species are predation and habitat degradation by feral goats, and competition from alien plant species such as S. africanus, Melinis minutiflora and Setaria gracilis [Setaria parviflora] (US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995).

Threatened Species

Social Impact

In some urban areas, such as Sydney in Australia, S. africanus is considered a problem in lawns (Breakwell, 1923). It also causes structural problems when growing on road verges, where it can break through asphalt (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 2001).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Infrastructure damage
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Negatively impacts livelihoods
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of endangered species
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
• Difficult to identify/detect in the field
• Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Economic Value

There are few productive uses for S. africanus. As a pasture component, it has very low feed value for livestock. Some landholders manage the problem by preventing the grass from maturing and thereby getting some grazing utility from it whilst at the early green stage of development.

Social Benefit

The entire plant of S. africanus is used by women in traditional medicine in Mahabo-Mananivo in southeastern Madagascar to treat allergies (Razafindraibe et al., 2013), while in northern Uganda crushed roots are used in the treatment of retained placenta (Kamatenesi et al., 2011).

Environmental Services

Tuckett (2013) observed a wide range of wild ungulates grazing in the various S. africanus plant communities he identified in a nature reserve in Gauteng, South Africa. In Hawaii, S. africanus is a food plant for Branta sandvicensis, the native Hawaiian goose or nene (Myers et al., 2016).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage

Environmental

• Wildlife habitat

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

There are several Sporobolus species that are very similar and difficult to distinguish. In Australia, S. africanus can be confused with the native S. elongatus (Burbidge, 1970), as well as the other weedy sporobolus grasses; it differs from S. indicus in its narrow, denser inflorescences and larger spikelets, and from S. fertilis in its larger spikelets and by the inflorescence branches being more appressed at the base (Mallett, 2005).

Prevention and Control

Detection and Inspection Methods

There are no easy methods for detecting S. africanus in the field. In areas likely to become infested, landholders must remain vigilant to grasses with the general characteristic of this species and seek early expert identification of any possible incursion. Similarly, it is very difficult to distinguish its seeds from those of other grass species. The recommended approach is to ensure that machinery and vehicles are completely cleaned of all plant matter before being allowed onto clean land.

Diagnosis

A laboratory technique was developed to create genetic markers to differentiate seed samples of S. africanus from those of other Sporobolus species present in Australia (Shrestha et al., 2005). This RAPD-PCR technique, however, has not been employed for routine screening.

Prevention

It is important to prevent infestation of clean pastures with S. africanus. The seeds are very easily moved on animals, vehicles, people and fodder so strict property hygiene is essential. Landholders in areas likely to become infested must be alert to new infestations and eliminate these as quickly as possible. It is also important to maintain existing pastures in a vigorous and dense condition to increase competition for any weed seedlings that might establish.

Viable seeds of Sporobolus spp. can take several days to pass through a cow’s digestive system (Andrews, 1995) and a minimum quarantine period of 5 days is recommended before cattle which have grazed in infested pastures are introduced to new pastures; a quarantine field should be especially reserved for such cattle (Elphinstone, 2013).

Government can assist in preventing S. africanus infestations by declaring the plant noxious and regulating to prevent its movement. In Australia, S. africanus is a declared weed in Queensland and New South Wales so that landholders are legally required to suppress and destroy the weed and/or prevent its spreading (depending on region). Government, regional groups and producer organizations can also mount effective extension campaigns to ensure that landholders are aware of the issues.

Eradication

Eradication of this grass is extremely problematical even at a property level. There are no documented cases where S. africanus has been eradicated from an area of any appreciable size.

Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures

Herbicide-treated pastures can be oversown with suitable species to prevent reinfestation by S. africanus and to restore pasture quality. Although not native to Australia, Elphinstone (2013) recommends stoloniferous grasses and other pasture species, such as creeping bluegrass (Bothriochloa insculpta) cv. Bisset, Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) cv. Katambora and cassia (Chamaecrista rotundifolia) cv. Wynn, for pasture recovery.

Physical/Mechanical Control

Where S. africanus infestations are relatively small, plants can be hand chipped, bagged and removed from pasture for burning or similar destruction.

Movement Control

Movement Control and property hygiene are critical elements in mitigating the effects of this weed. Every attempt must be made to prevent its introduction into clean areas. Measures include being certain that any seed or fodder brought on to a property is not infested, thoroughly cleaning machinery and vehicles, or refusing entry onto clean areas of machinery that has been in infested areas.

Biological Control

Although the Australian grazing industry is keen to have biological control for S. africanus, prospects are not good (Palmer, 2012). Grasses are difficult targets for biological control for several reasons. Australia also has some 15 native congeners necessitating a very high degree of host specificity of any prospective agent. One agent, the smut Ustilago sporoboli-indici was fully screened but rejected because of attack on Australian native Sporobolus species (Yobo et al., 2009).

Chemical Control

Two active substances are available for chemical control of S. africanus, flupropanate and glyphosate. These can be used by spot spraying, by boom spraying or by pressurized wick wiping. Spraying should be carried out in low rainfall months.

Flupropanate can be applied as granules to sites where plants have been grubbed out or as a liquid solution spot spray where population densities are low to medium (1-2 plants/10 m²). Scout plants at the periphery of population clumps should be targeted first before progressing inwards. Where weed populations are dense (>2000 plants/ha), (i) arable land should be cultivated and cropped for several years, with spot spraying of headlands; (ii) marginal arable land should be cropped for fodder for a couple of seasons using reduced tillage to minimize soil erosion, with spot spraying of headlands; (iii) non-arable land should have aerial application of flupropanate granules or boom spraying with flupropanate liquid formulation; and (iv) steep or broken land needs precision aerial application of flupropanate granules. There are grazing withholding periods for both dairy and beef cattle when flupropanate is applied to pasture: at least 14 days after spot spraying and at least 4 months after boom spraying or aerial application of granules (Bray and Officer, 2007; Elphinstone, 2013).

IPM

Integrated weed management operations minimize the detrimental effects of S. africanus (Dyason, 1988). These options include strict hygiene to prevent initial infestations, early detection of infestation, maintaining competitive pastures of non-Sporobolus species, minimizing overgrazing, grazing strategies to prevent S. africanus maturing and appropriate herbicide application.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

Despite considerable advancements in the taxonomy and phylogeny of the genus Sporobolus over the past two decades, there are still issues in identification that could be clarified with further work using the most recent techniques of DNA analysis and relating these studies to morphological characters suitable for field identification. These studies need to be undertaken at the global level. One benefit of definitive identification is that knowledge from various countries can be pooled.

There is very little information appearing about this species in the peer reviewed scientific literature.

References

Allan HH, 1936. An introduction to the grasses of New Zealand. New Zealand, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Bulletin No. 49, 159 pp.

Andrews TS, 1995. Dispersal of seeds of giant Sporobolus spp. after ingestion by grazing cattle. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 35(3):353-356.

Australian Weeds Committee, 2016. Weed identification. http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl

Baaijens GJ; Veldkamp JF, 1991. Sporobolus (Gramineae) in Malesia. Blumea, 35(2):393-458.

Bray S; Officer D, 2007. Weedy sporobolus grasses best practice manual. Revised edition. Brisbane, Qld, Australia: State of Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 44 pp. https://futurebeefnew-daff.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Weedy_sporobolus_manual.pdf

Breakwell E, 1923. The grasses and fodder plants of New South Wales. Sydney, Australia: Department of Agriculture, New South Wales.

Burbidge NT, 1970. Australian grasses. Sydney, NSW, Australia: Angus & Robertson.

Campbell BD; Mitchell ND; Field TRO, 1999. Climate profiles of temperate C3 and subtropical C4 species in New Zealand pastures. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 42(3):223-233.

Campbell BD; Wardle DA; Woods PW; Field TRO; Williamson DY; Barker GM, 1996. Ecology of subtropical grasses in temperate pastures: an overview. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association, 57:189-197.

CJB, 2016. African Plant Database. Conservatoire et Jardin Botaniques de la Ville de Geneve, Geneva, Switzerland, and South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa. Geneva, Switzerland: CJB/SANBI. http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/

Clifford HT; Bostok PD, 2007. Etymological dictionary of grasses. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag GmbH, xii + 319 pp.

Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2016. Australia's Virtual Herbarium., Australia: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria. http://avh.ala.org.au

DAISIE, 2015. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway. www.europe-aliens.org/default.do

Davis CJ; 1968, publ. 1969. Notes on the grass webworm, Herpetogramma licarsisalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae), a new pest of turfgrass in Hawaii and its enemies. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society, 20(2):311-316.

Dyason REA, 1988. Strategies for paramatta grass control. Banana Bulletin, 52(7):11.

Elphinstone G, 2013. Weedy sprobolus grasses - best management practices. Woocoo, QLD, Australia: South East Queensland Pest Advisory Forum, 2 pp. http://mrccc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Weedy-Sporobolus-Grasses-Best-Management-Practices.pdf

eMonocot, 2016. eMonocot - an online resource for monocot plants. http://e-monocot.org/

Eurobodalla Shire Council, 2016. Parramatta grass (Sporobolus africanus, syn. indicus var capensis). South coast weeds. Moruya, NSW, Australia: Eurobodalla Shire Council. http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/living-in/about/our-natural-environment/introduced-plants-and-animals/weeds/weed-profiles/parramatta-grass-sporobolus-africanus,-syn

Florence J; Guerin M; Reboul JL, 1983. Weeds of French Polynesia (Les mauvaises herbes de la Polynesie Francaise). Compte Rendu de la 12e Conference du COLUMA. Tome I. Paris, France: Comite Francais de Lutte contre les Mauvaises Herbes, 427-432.

Friis I; Vollesen K, 2005. Flora of the Sudan-Uganda border area east of the Nile. II. Catalogue of vascular plants, 2nd part, vegetation and phytogeography. Biologiske Skrifter, 51(2):389-859.

GBIF, 2016. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species

Green PS, 1994. Poaceae. In: Flora of Australia, volume 49. Oceanic islands 1 [ed. by Green, P. S.]. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service, 442-499.

Honore EN, 1970. Control of ratstail in pasture. Proceedings of the NZ Weed and Pest Control Conference 23, Palmerston North, 12-14 August 1970. Palmerston North, New Zealand: New Zealand Weed and Pest Control Society Inc., 66-68.

IUCN, 2015. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Kamatenesi MM; Acipa A; Oryem-Origa H, 2011. Medicinal plants of Otwal and Ngai Sub Counties in Oyam district, Northern Uganda. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 7(7): 14 pp. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/pdf/1746-4269-7-7.pdf

Kandwal MK; Gupta BK, 2005. Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns et Tourn. (Poaceae) a new record for India. Indian Journal of Forestry, 28(3):319-320.

Komolafe DA, 1976. Weed problems in tree crops in Nigeria. PANS, 22(2):250-256.

Mallett K, 2005. Flora of Australia Volume 44B: Poaceae 3. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO Publishing / Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS), xviii + 486 pp.

Myers P; Espinosa R; Parr CS; Jones T; Hammond GS; Dewey TA, 2016. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Ann Arbor, MI, USA: University of Michigan. http://animaldiversity.org

Online Atlas of the British & Irish Flora, 2016. Sporolobus africanus (African dropseed). http://www.brc.ac.uk/plantatlas/index.php?q=node/593

Oudtshoorn F van, 1999. Guide to grasses of southern Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: Briza Publications, 288 pp.

Palmer WA, 2012. Sporobolus spp. - weedy sporobolus grasses. In: Biological control of weeds in Australia [ed. by Julien, M. \McFadyen, R. \Cullen, J.]. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO Publishing, 569-575.

Palmer WA; Yobo KS; Witt ABR, 2008. Prospects for the biological control of the weedy sporobolus grasses in Australia. In: Proceedings of the 16th Australian Weeds Conference, Cairns Convention Centre, North Queensland, Australia, 18-22 May, 2008. Queensland, Australia: Queensland Weed Society, 264-266.

Parsons WT; Cuthbertson EG, 2001. Noxious weeds of Australia. Second edition. Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO Publishing, 698 pp.

Peterson PM; Romaschenko K; Arrieta YH; Saarela JM, 2014. A molecular phylogeny and new subgeneric classification of Sporobolus (Poaceae: Chloridoideae: Sporobolinae). Taxon, 63(6):1212-1243.

PIER, 2016. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Pilger R, 1956. Gramineae II. Subfamilies: Micraioideae, Eragrostideae, Oryzoideae, Olyroideae. 14d. (Gramineae II. Unterfamilien: Micraioideae, Eragrostideae, Oryzoideae, Olyroideae.) In: Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, 2nd ed., vol. 14d [ed. by Melchior, H. \Werdermann, E.]. Berlin, Germany: Duncker & Humblot, 1-168.

Quattrocchi U, 2006. CRC world dictionary of grasses: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, 2384 pp.

Queensland Government, 2016. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland edition. Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/

Razafindraibe M; Kuhlman AR; Rabarison H; Rakotoarimanana V; Rajeriarison C; Rakotoarivelo N; Randrianarivony T; Rakotoarivony F; Ludovic R; Randrianasolo A; Bussmann RW, 2013. Medicinal plants used by women from Agnalazaha littoral forest (southeastern Madagascar). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 9(73): 13 pp. http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/73

Shrestha S; Adkins SW; Graham GC; Loch DS, 2003. Phylogeny of the Sporobolus indicus complex, based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences. Australian Systematic Botany, 16(2):165-176.

Shrestha S; Adkins SW; Graham GC; Loch DS, 2005. An identification tool for the Australian weedy Sporobolus species based on random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiles. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 56(2):157-167.

Simon BK; Jacobs SWL, 1999. Revision of the genus Sporobolus (Poaceae, Chloridoideae) in Australia. Australian Systematic Botany, 12(3):375-448.

Spies JJ; Merwe Evan der; Plessis Hdu; Saayman EJL, 1991. Basic chromosome numbers and polyploid levels in some South African and Australian grasses (Poaceae). Bothalia, 21(2):163-170.

The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org

Tuckett AS, 2013. A plant ecological study and management plan for Mogale’s Gate Biodiversity Centre, Gauteng. MSc Thesis. Pretoria, South Africa: University of South Africa, 201 pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995. Recovery plan for the Kaua'i plant cluster. Portland, Oregon, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 270 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/950920a.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997. Recovery plan for the Maui plant cluster. Portland, Oregon, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 130 pp. plus appendices. http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/recovery_plan/970729.pdf

USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). National Plant Germplasm System. Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

Verloove F, 2006. Catalogue of neophytes in Belgium (1800-2005). Scripta Botanica Belgica, 39: 89 pp. http://alienplantsbelgium.be/sites/alienplantsbelgium.be/files/tabel_2.pdf

Wagner WL; Herbst DR; Sohmer SH, 1990. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Special Publication 83. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press, 829 pp.

Wagner WL; Herbst DR; Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press/Bishop Museum Press, 1919 pp.

Walton C, 2001. Weedy sporobolus grasses strategy. Cooparoo, QLD, Australia: Queensland Department of Natural Resources & Mines, 30 pp.

Wand SJE; Midgley GF; Stock WD, 2001. Growth responses to elevated CO2 in NADP-ME, NAD-ME and PCK C4 grasses and a C3 grass from South Africa. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 28(1):13-25.

Werger MJA; Coetzee BJ, 1978. The Sudano-Zambezian region. In: Biogeography and ecology of southern Africa (Monographiae Biologicae, volume 31) [ed. by Werger, M. J. A.]. The Hague, Netherlands: Dr W. Junk bv Publishers, 303-462.

Yobo KS; Laing MD; Palmer WA; Shivas RG, 2009. Evaluation of Ustilago sporoboli-indici as a classical biological control agent for invasive Sporobolus grasses in Australia. Biological Control, 50(1):7-12. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10499644

Contributors

25/01/2016 Original text by:

W. A. Palmer, Consultant, Queensland, Australia

Distribution Maps