Solanum sisymbriifolium (sticky nightshade)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.
Preferred Common Name
- sticky nightshade
Other Scientific Names
- Solanum balbisii Dunal
- Solanum bipinnatifidum Larrañaga
- Solanum branciifolium J.Jacq.
- Solanum decurrens Balb.
- Solanum edule Vell.
- Solanum formosum Weinm.
- Solanum inflatum Hornem.
- Solanum mauritianum Willd. ex Roth
- Solanum opuliflorum Port. ex Dunal
- Solanum pilosum Raf.
- Solanum rogersii S.Moore
- Solanum sabeanum Buckley
- Solanum subviscidum Schrank
- Solanum thouinii C.C.Gmel.
- Solanum viscidum Schweigg.
- Solanum xanthacanthum Willd. ex Walp.
International Common Names
- English: dense-thorn bitter apple; manacader; red buffalo-burr; viscid nightshade; wild tomato
- Spanish: alco; cardo; comida de vibora; espina colorada; espino colorado; guidilla de campo; mullaca; ocote mullaca; putui; revienta caballo; tomatillo de campo; tomatillo espinudo; tutia
- Chinese: suan jie qie
- Portuguese: arrebenta-cavalo; joa das queimadas; joa de roca; joão bravo; mata-cavalo; puca-puca
Local Common Names
- Bolivia: puka puka; tomatillo; wilawila
- Germany: Klebriger Nachtschatten
- Lithuania: pilkalapis baklazanas
- South Africa: dense-thorned bitter apple; doringtamatie; tamatiedissel; wildetamatie
- Sweden: blek taggborre
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageSolanum sisymbriifolium has been widely introduced as a trap crop for potato cyst nematodes. However, it is an aggressive weed that spreads by seeds and vegetatively by rhizomes. This species can be easily dispersed by animals (e.g. birds) and by human activity (e.g. seed-contaminated fodder, farm machinery, mud) and once established, it often grows forming dense spiny thickets that displace native vegetation and can become a serious weed in active pastures and ruderal areas. Currently, S. sisymbriifolium is included in the Global Compendium of Weeds and has been declared a noxious invasive weed in Australia, South Africa, USA, Cuba, Hungary, Italy, Spain, China and Japan.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Solanales
- Family: Solanaceae
- Genus: Solanum
- Species: Solanum sisymbriifolium
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe Solanaceae family comprises 102 genera and 2480 species distributed worldwide, but overwhelmingly across tropical America (Stevens, 2020). Solanum with about 1400 species is the largest genus within the Solanaceae. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses have demonstrated that the formerly separate genera Lycopersicon, Cyphomandra, Normania and Triguera should be all nested within Solanum, thus, all species of these four genera have been transferred to Solanum. Molecular phylogenetic analyses also found that all Solanum species form a strongly supported monophyletic group characterized by a chromosome number based on x = 12 (Olmstead and Palmer, 1992; Olmstead and Sweere, 1994; Olmstead et al., 1999; Bohs, 2005; PBI Solanum Project, 2020).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is adapted from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2020) and PBI Solanum Project (2020):
Herbs to small shrubs, annual or perennial, copiously armed, pubescent with glandular, many-celled, simple and stellate hairs. Stems erect, with yellow or orange-yellow, subulate prickles 2-10 × 1.5 mm. Leaves simple or sometimes pinnate; petiole 1.5-4 cm; leaf blade oblong or ovate, 4.5-10(-14) × 2.5-5(-8) cm, stellate pubescent, sometimes shaggy, often armed along main veins on both surfaces, pinnately lobed or parted; lobes pinnately lobed or dentate, apex acute. Inflorescences axillary or extra-axillary scorpioid racemes; peduncle branched or not. Pedicel 5-10 mm. Calyx cup-shaped, ca. 1 cm; lobes ovate-lanceolate, ca. 5 × 2 mm, pubescent and prickly as on stems. Corolla purplish or white, stellate, 1.6-3.5 cm; lobes ovate, 10 × 4-8 mm, sparsely hairy. Filaments ca. 1 mm, glabrous; anthers lanceolate, ca. 9 mm. Ovary puberulent. Style 1-1.2 cm. Fruiting pedicel 1-1.5 cm, stout. Fruiting calyx enlarged, longer than fruit, densely prickly and enveloping most berry, ultimately flaring wide and exposing it. Berry bright red, subglobose, 1-2 cm in diameter. Seeds reniform, ca. 2.5 × 2 mm.
Distribution
Top of pageSolanum sisymbriifolium is native to dry regions of South America, from Ecuador to Argentina. It has been introduced and can be found naturalized across Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, North America and the Caribbean (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2020; ISSG, 2020; PBI Solanum Project, 2020; POWO, 2020; USDA-NRCS, 2020).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 12 May 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Benin | Present | ||||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | Listed as a weed | ||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | |||||
Namibia | Present | ||||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
China | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Georgia | Present | Introduced | Listed as a weed | ||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | ||||||
-West Bengal | Present | ||||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nepal | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | Listed as a weed | ||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | 1978 | ||||
Turkey | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uzbekistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Austria | Present | Introduced | 1968 | ||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | 1880 | ||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | 1935 | ||||
Denmark | Present | Introduced | First reported: Pre 1963 | ||||
Estonia | Present | Introduced | 1931 | ||||
Finland | Present | Introduced | |||||
France | Present | Introduced | |||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | |||||
Hungary | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as a noxious weed | |||
Ireland | Present | Introduced | 1973 | ||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Also in Sardinia | |||
Latvia | Present | Introduced | 1986 | ||||
Lithuania | Present | Introduced | 1988 | ||||
Netherlands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Norway | Present | Introduced | 1959 | ||||
Poland | Present | Introduced | 1932 | ||||
Portugal | Present | ||||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sweden | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ukraine | Present | Introduced | 1925 | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | 1922 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ontario | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Alabama | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Introduced | |||||
-California | Present | Introduced | Listed as a weed | ||||
-Delaware | Present | ||||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Iowa | Present | ||||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Jersey | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New York | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oregon | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | ||||||
-South Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Virginia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Victoria | Present | ||||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present | Native | |||||
-Acre | Present | Native | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | |||||
-Distrito Federal | Present | Native | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Native | |||||
-Goias | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Native | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | |||||
-Parana | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | |||||
-Rondonia | Present | Native | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | |||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | 1923 | ||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Uruguay | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageIn Belgium, S. sisymbriifolium was first recorded in 1880 and currently, it is listed as a rare and ephemeral alien usually found on disturbed sites and road verges (Verloove, 2006).
In South Africa, S. sisymbriifolium was first recorded in 1908. It is thought that this species was introduced unintentionally with imported horse fodder. It has become a noxious weed with the potential to smother native vegetation. Currently, it is declared a Category 1 alien invader plant and it may not be planted, propagated, imported, or sold in the country (Hill, 1994; Byrne et al., 2002; Henderson, 2011).
Habitat
Top of pageSolanum sisymbriifolium is usually found along roadsides, waste places, landfills, dump sites, pastures and verges near agricultural lands. In Australia, it can be found in shrubby eucalypt woodlands. It is sometimes planted as ornamental and medicinal plant in gardens and farms (Bean, 2012; ISSG, 2020; USDA-NRCS, 2020; Verloove, 2006).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The haploid chromosome number reported for S. sisymbriifolium is n=12 (Moscone, 1992).
Reproductive Biology
All Solanum species have poricidally dehiscent anthers that make this genus an example of buzz pollination syndrome. Solanum flowers are mainly hermaphroditic, nectar is absent and pollen is the exclusive floral reward. Pollination in Solanum is performed by bees (de Luca and Vallejo-Marin, 2013).
Physiology and Phenology
In areas within and outside its native distribution range, S. sisymbriifolium produces flowers and fruits throughout the year (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2020; PBI Solanum Project, 2020).
Longevity
Solanum sisymbriifolium grows as an annual in temperate and subtropical regions and as a perennial in tropical climates (Bean, 2012; ISSG, 2020).
Environmental Requirements
Solanum sisymbriifolium is able to grow in a wide range of climates, soil types and pHs, but it prefers moist, sandy soils. It grows best in areas with full sunlight but can tolerate shaded conditions (ISSG, 2020).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
55 | 35 |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Globodera pallida | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | ||||
Globodera rostochiensis | Pathogen | Other|All Stages |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSolanum sisymbriifolium can be attacked by the nematode species Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida (Timmermans et al., 2007a, b).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
Solanum sisymbriifolium spreads by seeds and vegetatively by rhizomes. Fruits are consumed and dispersed by animals (e.g. birds and mammals).
Accidental Introduction
Seeds may be dispersed as a contaminant in fodder, mud and agricultural products (Byrne et al., 2002; ISSG, 2020; PBI Solanum Project, 2020). It is thought that S. sisymbriifolium was introduced unintentionally to South Africa with imported horse fodder (Byrne et al., 2002).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Cultivated as a trap crop | Yes | Yes | ISSG (2020) |
Disturbance | Common weed in wastelands and ruderal areas | Yes | ISSG (2020) | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Escaped from cultivation | Yes | ISSG (2020) | |
Garden waste disposal | Cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | PBI Solanum Project (2020) | |
Hitchhiker | Contaminant in fodder | Yes | Yes | Hill (1994) |
Horticulture | Cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | PBI Solanum Project (2020) |
Industrial purposes | Fruits used for synthesis of corticosteroids and sex hormones | Yes | Yes | Hill and Hulley (1995) |
Internet sales | Seeds for sale online | Yes | Yes | |
Medicinal use | Leaves are used in traditional medicine | Yes | ISSG (2020) | |
Ornamental purposes | Cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | PBI Solanum Project (2020) |
People foraging | The berry is considered edible and consumed by humans | Yes | PBI Solanum Project (2020) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds as a contaminant | Yes | Yes | ISSG (2020) |
Machinery and equipment | Seeds | Yes | Yes | ISSG (2020) |
Seeds for sale online | Yes | Yes | ||
Soil, sand and gravel | Seeds | Yes | Yes | ISSG (2020) |
Land vehicles | Seeds | Yes | Yes | ISSG (2020) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive and negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageSolanum sisymbriifolium behaves as a weed within and outside its native distribution range. It can be a serious weed of pastures and ruderal areas where it grows forming dense spiny thickets that smother native vegetation. It reduces biodiversity in natural forests because it dominates large areas in the understory affecting the germination and establishment of native species. Currently, it is listed as a noxious invasive weed in Australia, South Africa, USA, Cuba, Hungary, Italy, Spain, China and Japan (Mito and Uesugi, 2004; DiTomaso and Healy, 2007; Weber et al., 2008; Campos and Herrera, 2009; Celesti-Grapow et al., 2009; Henderson, 2011; Oviedo Prieto and González-Oliva, 2015; Randall, 2017; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2020; ISSG, 2020; USDA-NRCS, 2020).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Poisoning
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Solanum sisymbriifolium is used as a trap crop for potato cyst nematodes (PCN) such as Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida that cause massive damage to potato crops in Europe and other countries (Timmermans et al., 2007a, b). The plants induce eggs of PCN to hatch but the standing crop is destroyed before the nematode is able to complete its life cycle. Using S. sisymbriifolium in potato fields helps prevent the potato crop from being infested with PCN and has been shown to reduce populations of PCN by 50-80% (Timmermans et al., 2007a, b; Dandurand and Knudsen, 2016; ISSG, 2020).
The fruits of S. sisymbriifolium are also used as a source of solasodine, a glycoalkaloid used in the synthesis of corticosteroids and sex hormones and a large component of oral contraceptives (Hill and Hulley, 1995).
Social Benefit
Solanum sisymbriifolium is cultivated as an ornamental and the leaves are used in traditional medicine. The berry is edible and consumed by humans in South America, however, the seeds are poisonous (ISSG, 2020; PBI Solanum Project, 2020).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
- Biological control
Human food and beverage
- Fruits
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention
Solanum sisymbriifolium is an aggressive weed that has become invasive in many countries. Therefore, its introduction as a trap crop or cultivated plant into a new region should be considered thoroughly before implementation (ISSG, 2020).
Physical/mechanical control
Small infestations of S. sisymbriifolium can be removed using specialized machinery. However, mechanical control is difficult due to the ability of this species to coppice after cutting and to reproduce prolifically by seed and rhizomes (Byrne et al., 2002; ISSG, 2020).
Biological control
Biological agents for the control of S. sisymbriifolium include the leaf-feeding tortoise beetle Gratiana spadicea and the flower-feeding weevil Anthonomus sisymbrii. The beetle G. spadicea was released in South Africa in 1994 and this insect failed to establish at some sites and, where establishment was confirmed, its impact has been variable (Byrne et al., 2002). The species A. sisymbrii has been considered for introduction in South Africa as well (Olckers et al., 2002; ISSG, 2020)
References
Top of pageBean AR, 2012. Solanum species of eastern and northern Australia. Version 6. Delta intkey.https://www.delta-intkey.com/solanum/www/sisymbri.htm
Bohs L, 2005. Major clades in Solanum based in ndhF sequences. In: A festschrift for William G. D’Arcy: the legacy of a taxonomist. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 104, [ed. by Keating RC, Hollowell VC, Croat TB]. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. 27-49.
Campos, JA, Herrera, M, 2009. (Análisis de la flora alóctona de Bizkaia, País Vasco (España)). LAZAROA, 30, 7-33.
Henderson L, 2011. Invasive berry-producing Solanaceae. In: SAPIA News No. 20 : Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas.1-5. http://www.midlandsconservancies.org.za/documents/problemplants/sapia/0_SAPIA_NEWS_No._20.pdf
Hill MP, 1994. Evaluation of Gratiana spadicea (Klug, 1829) and Metriona elatior (Klug, 1829) (Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) for the biological control of sticky nightshade Solanum sisymbriifolium Lamarck (Solanaceae) in South Africa (Doctoral dissertation). Makhanda, South Africa: Rhodes University.
Mito, T, Uesugi, T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and new regulations for prevention of their adverse effects. In: Global Environmental Research , 8(2) . 171-191.
Olmstead RG, Sweere JA, Spangler RE, Bohs L, Palmer JD, 1999. Phylogeny and provisional classification of the Solanaceae based on chloroplast DNA. In: Solanaceae IV: advances in biology and utilization, [ed. by Nee M, Symon DE, Lester RN, Jessop JP]. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 111-137.
PBI Solanum Project, 2020. Solanaceae Source: A global taxonomic resource for the nightshade family. Planetary Biodiversity Inventories (PBI).http://www.solanaceaesource.org/
Distribution References
Abdullahi AE, 2006. Field Guide to Weeds of Botswana., Gaborone, Botswana: Department of Agricultural Research.
Balogh L, Dancza I, Kiraly G, 2004. Actual list of neophytes in Hungary and their classification according to their success. In: Biological invasions in Hungary - Invasive plants, [ed. by Mihaly B, Botta-Dukat Z]. 61-92.
CABI Data Mining, 2011. Invasive Species Databases.,
Campos JA, Herrera M, 2009. (Análisis de la flora alóctona de Bizkaia, País Vasco (España)). LAZAROA. 7-33.
eFloraSA, 2020. eFloraSA — Electronic Flora of South Australia. Adelaide, South Australia, Australia: State Herbarium of South Australia. http://www.flora.sa.gov.au/
Howell C, Sawyer JWD, 2006. New Zealand naturalised vascular plant checklist., Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Plant Conservation Network.
Kikodze D, Memiadze N, Kharazishvili D, Manvelidze Z, Mueller-Schaerer, 2010. The alien flora of Georgia. In: Swiss National Science Foundation, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and SCOPES, 40 pp. http://www.unifr.ch/biol/ecology/muellerschaerer/group/mueller/webpage/pdf/research/Invasives_GE.pdf
Milbau A, Stout JC, 2006. Database of alien plants in Ireland., Dublin, Ireland: School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin.
Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and new regulations for prevention of their adverse effects. In: Global Environmental Research, 8 (2) 171-191.
Preston CD, Pearman DA, Dines TD, 2002. New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora., Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Stehmann JR, Mentz LA, Agra MF, Vignoli-Silva M, Giacomin L, Rodrigues IMC, 2015. Solanum sisymbriifolium. (Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB24915
Verloove F, 2006. Catalogue of neophytes in Belgium (1800-2005). Scripta Botanica Belgica. 89 pp.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page25/06/20 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Institute of the Environment, University of Connecticut
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