Pluchea carolinensis (sourbush)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G. Don
Preferred Common Name
- sourbush
Other Scientific Names
- Conyza carolinensis Jacq.
- Pluchea odorata auct. non (L.) Cass.
- Pluchea symphytifolia auct. non Gillis
International Common Names
- English: cattletongue; coughbush; cure-for-all; curry plant; shrubby fleabane; stinking fleabane; sweet scent; wild tobacco
- Spanish: tabat-diable
Local Common Names
- Kiribati: te kaikare; te karei
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Pluchea
- Species: Pluchea carolinensis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pagePluchea, named after French naturalist Noel A. Pluche (1688-1761), is a pantropical genus of aromatic shrubs or herbs in the family Asteraceae (Wagner et al., 1999). The genus, with between forty to eighty species (Eldenäs et al., 1999), is composed of several entities which have been given generic status and is regarded as heterogeneous and not monophyletic (Kadereit and Jeffrey, 2010).
There has been some confusion surrounding the nomenclature of P. carolinensis, including misapplication of the binomial P. symphytifolia (Gillis, 1977; Khan and Jarvis, 1989). This name is actually a synonym for Neurolaena lobate, another medicinal plant with an overlapping range that is used for many of the same purposes as P. carolinensis (Morton, 1981; Hodges and Bennett, 2006). The name P. odorata has also been misapplied to P. carolinensis in Texas, California and Hawaii (Wagner et al., 1999; Hodges and Bennett, 2006).
The species name carolinensis means “of Carolina” as it was erroneously believed to have originated from this region when the species was first described in 1789 (Hammer, 2004). The common name “sourbush” and others associated with smell refer to the aromatic foliage and the name “cure-for-all” derives from the many medicinal and herbal uses associated with the plant (Francis, 2004).
In the Hawaiian Islands, P. carolinensis overlaps in range and distribution with P. indica, an invasive shrub native to southern Asia. Where the two species co-occur, they are able to form spontaneous hybrids classified as P. x fosbergii (Wagner et al., 1999).
Description
Top of pageP. carolinensis is an erect, many branched, aromatic, tap rooted shrub or subshrub, 10-40 dm tall. Stems are glandular tomentose or matted villous with viscid, vitreous hairs, sometimes merely glandular.
Leaves are petiolate, dull grayish green on upper surface and pale on the lower surface. Leaf shape is elliptic to narrowly ovate or oblong-obovate, 5-20 cm long, 2-8 cm wide. The lower leaf surface is usually densely tomentose. Margins are entire or with small, callous teeth. Petioles are 1-2.5 cm long.
Flower heads are in large, flat topped inflorescences. The involucre is hemispherical, 4.5-6 mm high. The inner bracts are pubescent on the outer face and margins are ciliate. Disk corollas are whitish to pinkish lavender. The pappus is dull brownish white, consisting of a single series of 10-12 capillary bristles. Pappi are tardily falling. Achenes are dark brown, ca. 0.8 mm long, scarcely grooved and sparsely appressed whitish pubescent (Wagner et al., 1999; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2015).
Distribution
Top of pageP. carolinensis has a broad native distribution that includes Mexico and Central America, most islands of the Caribbean and northern South America (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015; USDA-ARS, 2015). There is some disagreement as to its status in Florida. Some sources list it as native (USDA-ARS, 2015), although most state that it has probably been introduced and has naturalized (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2015; The Institute for Regional Conservation, 2015). It has also become widely naturalized on several islands of the Pacific, as well as in Taiwan, Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean (PIER, 2015; USDA-ARS, 2015) and was most recently first collected in the Canary Islands off the northwest coast of Africa (Verloove, 2013).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized in Diego Garcia | |||
Japan | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized in disturbed ruderal sites, often on barren mudstone slopes or associated with scrubby vegetation along roads, below 100-200 m | |||
Europe |
|||||||
Spain | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Canary Islands | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | 2011 | A single young shrub was first found in Barranco de Arguineguín in 2011 | |||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Native | |||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Native | |||||
Barbados | Present | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
Bermuda | Present | Native | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | |||||
Curaçao | Present | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Haiti | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | Original citation: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2015) | ||||
Montserrat | Present | Native | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Native | |||||
Sint Maarten | Present | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Native | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Some dispute as to whether native or invasive to Florida; Original citation: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2015) | |||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1931 | Invasive | First collected on Oahu in 1931 as Pluchea symphytifolia | ||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | First reported: 1980s | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Recent introduction, naturalized | |||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kiribati | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Record as Pluchea symphytifolia | ||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
United States Minor Outlying Islands | |||||||
-Johnston Atoll | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Wake Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | ||||||
Ecuador | Present | ||||||
Guyana | Present | ||||||
Suriname | Present | ||||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageP. carolinensis was first collected on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, in 1931 (Wagner et al., 1999). Although the exact area of origin and reason for introduction are unknown, the specimen label from the first collection describes the site as “on recent coral fill” on Honolulu (Bishop Museum, 2015). This suggests that it could have been a contaminant in construction material and likely arrived inadvertently through transoceanic shipping activities. Numerous collections in the early 1930s document its rapid dispersal across the island of Oahu and in 1933 it was collected near Hilo on Hawaii Island, possibly also as a contaminant on interisland shipping materials (Bishop Museum, 2015). Subsequent collections were made on the islands of Kauai in 1947, Lanai in 1963, Maui in 1970, Molokai in 1972 and Kahoolawe in 1980 (Bishop Museum, 2015).
The advent of World War II and the movement of large amounts of supplies, construction materials and equipment associated with military activities and installations, likely facilitated the spread of P. carolinensis throughout islands of the Pacific, with the Hawaiian Islands as the most likely seed source. This species began to be noted and collected after the end of the war on the island of Guam in 1946, Eniwetok Atoll, Marshall Islands in 1946, Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands in 1950, Palau in 1950, Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands in 1950, Tinian, Northern Mariana Islands in 1952 and several of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands administered by the US government (Bishop Museum, 2015). The correlation between the presence of P. carolinensis and military airfields constructed during World War II has been noted as being the most likely cause of its widespread dissemination throughout its introduced Pacific range (Space and Imada, 2004; PIER, 2015).
P. carolinensis was first collected in Taiwan in 1987 and has rapidly expanded its range across the island, although the area of origin is unknown (Peng et al., 1998). It was also first noted and suspected of being accidentally introduced on the island of Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, in 2011 (Verloove, 2013). It has flowered and set seed in subsequent years and is predicted to become established and fully naturalized in the near future (Verloove, 2013).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Cook Islands | 1940s | Military movements (pathway cause) | Yes | PIER (2015) | Correlated with military airfields constructed in the Pacific during World War II | |||
Hawaii | 1931 | Military movements (pathway cause) | Yes | Bishop Museum (2015) | Possible contaminant of construction material | |||
Kiribati | Military movements (pathway cause) | Yes | Space and Imada (2004) | May have been accidentally introduced as a result of military activity |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageWithin its native range, P. carolinensis has a history and tradition of herbal and medicinal uses (Francis, 2004; Hodges and Bennett, 2006). Such practices could result in its introduction into new areas for similar purposes.
The movement of supplies and equipment associated with military activities is suspected of dispersing the seeds of P. carolinensis over long distances throughout the Pacific (Space and Imada, 2004; PIER, 2015). The possibility still exists that similar dispersal may occur from infested sites if proper precautions or mitigation measures are not in place.
Once P. carolinensis has been introduced and established into a new region, it produces numerous, wind dispersed seeds and has the ability to rapidly colonize and thrive in disturbed sites, often associated with human activities. These are factors that increase the likelihood and risk of further natural and inadvertent introduction.
Habitat
Top of pageP. carolinensis is commonly found in natural and anthropogenic disturbed sites within both its native and introduced ranges. It can be found occurring along roadsides, road cuts and fill, along the borders of hammocks, on construction sites, riverbanks, vacant lots, eroded sites, landslides, burned areas, the margins of hardwood forests and abandoned fields (Francis, 2004; Hammer, 2004; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2015). In Cuba, it occurs in sandy and rocky coasts, anthropic savannahs, ruderal zones and human impacted swampy areas (Herrera and Ventosa, 2005). In the Hawaiian Islands, it is most abundant in relatively dry, coastal areas, pastures, forests, roadsides and vacant lots but can also be found up to 900 m in openings of mesic and wet forests (Wagner et al., 1999; Motooka et al., 2003). In Taiwan, it is a ruderal species in disturbed places, barren mudstone slopes or associated with scrubby roadside vegetation from 50 to 200 m (Peng et al., 1998).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Mangroves | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Chromosome number of 2n = 20 has been reported (Wagner et al., 1999)
Reproductive Biology
P. carolinensis reproduces through the production of prolific numbers of wind dispersed seeds (Francis, 2004; Cate, 2007).
Physiology and Phenology
P. carolinensis is a fast growing perennial shrub, probably capable of reaching reproductive maturity in a suitable habitat during the first year of growth. It is reported to bloom between the months of February to August in Florida and during the spring months in Texas (Long and Lakela, 1976; Smith, 1985; Hammer, 2004; Richardson and King, 2010). Its flowers are regularly visited by honeybees.
Longevity
P. carolinensis is a short lived perennial shrub, growing for two to four years before dying, or dying back and resprouting from the roots (Francis, 2004). Resprouts grow rapidly, at the rate of up to 1.5 m in the first year of regrowth (Francis, 2004). It is moderately tolerant of fire and can regenerate from basal shoots following low intensity fires (Smith, 1985). P. carolinensis will rapidly colonize burned sites along with a number of early successional weedy species (Smith and Tunison, 1992). Seeds are orthodox although longevity of the soil seed bank is unknown (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2015). One study in the Hawaiian Islands collected P. carolinensis seeds in the soil seed bank over a nine month period, despite their absence in the seed rain, suggesting that seeds may be able to persist under natural conditions for an extended duration of time (Bakutis, 2005).
Associations
P. carolinensis is often found with other ruderal species typically present in naturally and anthropogenically disturbed habitats (Francis, 2004). In Cuba, it exploits these habitats along with Pseudoconyza lyrata [Blumea viscosa] and two species of Pterocaulon (Herrera and Ventosa, 2005). In Florida, it is reported to be a common species in disturbed sites, especially in black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) habitats (Hodges and Bennett, 2006). On the windward aspects of Molokai, Maui and Hawaii islands below 350 m elevation, P. carolinensis is a common component of Wikstroemia shrubland (Wagner et al., 1999).
Environmental Requirements
P. carolinensis is native to areas with a tropical to subtropical climate (USDA-ARS, 2015). It is typically found from sea level to below 1000 m elevation in both its native and introduced range (Wagner et al., 1999; Francis, 2004; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2015). It occurs on all soil types and is tolerant of both well and poorly drained soils, all soil textures, acidic and basic pH, salt and salt spray and compaction (Francis, 2004). In the Hawaiian Islands, it has a broad ecological amplitude, but is primarily dominant in coastal habitats and in areas susceptible to brackish groundwater intrusion (Wagner et al., 1999). It grows in areas with an average of at least 1000 mm of annual rainfall, but can establish and persist in much drier sites if sufficient ground water is available. For example near streams and other riparian habitats, wetlands and mangrove communities (Francis, 2004; Erickson and Puttock, 2006). Due to its shade intolerance and inability to compete with dense grass or shrub cover, it is an early successional species that is most common and sometimes dominant in open, disturbed habitats (Smith, 1985; Francis; 2004). Francis (2004) speculates that the wind dispersed seeds require bare, wet soil to germinate and establish.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tolerated | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
27 | 21 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 1000 | 1400 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acinia picturata | Herbivore | Plants|Inflorescence | to species | USA (Hawaii) | Y |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe flower head feeding fly Acinia picturata (Diptera: Tephritidae), was deliberately introduced from Mexico into Hawaii in 1959 to provide biological control of P. carolinensis. Despite becoming well established, A. picturata was found not to have a significant impact on P. carolinensis (Alyokhin et al., 2001).
The lobate lac scale Paratachardina lobata, is also a common pest of this species. Adults, larvae and eggs of the polyphagous scale can be introduced into new areas on the stems and leaves of P. carolinensis.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
P. carolinensis produces prolific numbers of wind dispersed achenes (Francis, 2004). The bristly pappus primarily aids in wind dispersal, but may also provide temporary buoyancy that could facilitate secondary dispersal by water, especially in the riparian habitats, wetlands and mangrove communities where P. carolinensis commonly grows (Francis, 2004; Erickson and Puttock, 2006).
Vector Transmission
There is no evidence that the achenes of P. carolinensis are dispersed by birds, mammals or other biotic vectors, but it may be possible that the bristly pappus could aid in adherence to fur or mud on animals.
Accidental Introduction
The movement of supplies and equipment associated with military activities is suspected of being responsible for the dispersal of the seeds of P. carolinensis over long distances throughout the Pacific (Space and Imada, 2004; PIER, 2015).
Intentional Introduction
Within its native range, P. carolinensis has a history and tradition of herbal and medicinal uses (Francis, 2004; Hodges and Bennett, 2006). Such practices could result in its introduction into new areas for similar purposes. Despite the medicinal uses, however, there was no evidence found that it is widely grown or sold commercially outside of areas within its native range.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Disturbance | Common in disturbed areas | Yes | Francis (2004) | |
Hitchhiker | Accidentally introduced as a result of military activity | Yes | Yes | PIER (2015) |
Medicinal use | Used medicinally and available in herbal shops | Yes | Francis (2004); Hodges and Bennett (2006) | |
Military movements | Accidentally introduced as a result of military activity | Yes | Yes | PIER (2015) |
Self-propelled | Wind dispersed seeds | Yes | Francis (2004) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Machinery and equipment | Vector suspected as part of military construction activites | Yes | PIER (2015) | |
Plants or parts of plants | Cut branches and live plants used medicinally | Yes | Yes | Hodges and Bennett (2006) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageWithin its native range, P. carolinensis has a history and tradition of herbal and medicinal uses. This provides some economic benefit to the botanicas and herbal shops that sell it (Francis, 2004; Hodges and Bennett, 2006).
In the Hawaiian Islands however, P. carolinensis is a common weed of pastures that can displace and reduce the amount of forage available to livestock (Motooka et al., 2003; Hannaway and Fribourg, 2011).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
As an early successional species generally intolerant of shade and competition, P. carolinensis is most likely to occur in disturbed habitats, which are also negatively impacted by several other fast growing weedy plants. In these sites it may be difficult to discriminate the effects of one taxon from another. P.carolinensis, with its ability to rapidly colonize such sites and form dense monocultures, has been implicated in overall habitat degradation and displacement through competition with native species (Smith, 1985; Motooka et al., 2003). After invading burned sites of the Hawaiian Islands, it is however usually outcompeted and replaced by later successional plants (Smith and Tunison, 1992).
P.carolinensis is also considered to be a primary threat to anchialine pools throughout the coastal areas of the Hawaiian Islands (Pratt and Abbott, 1996). In particular, it produces abundant leaf litter that can contribute to increased eutrophication and early pool senescence (Chai et al., 1989).
Impact on Biodiversity
P. carolinensis primarily invades areas of natural and anthropogenic disturbance, along with several other early successional weedy taxa. Therefore, its impacts on biodiversity in these sites may be minimal. Nevertheless, with its ability to form dense monocultures, it can monopolize resources, displace native flora and interfere with native plant succession in invaded sites. As a result, it has been identified as one of the primary weed threats to 12 species or subspecies of proposed or endangered plant taxa in the Hawaiian Islands. These include Abutilon eremitopetalum, Bidens hillebrandiana subsp. hillebrandiana [B. hillebrandiana], B. micrantha subsp. ctenophylla,Cyanea undulata,Cyrtandra munroi, Dubautia pauciflorula,Euphorbia celastroides var. kaenana,Kadua st.johnii, Labordia triflora,Melanthera micrantha subsp. exigua, M. micrantha subsp. micrantha and Pittosporum halophilum (Wood and Kiehn, 2011; US Fish and Wildlife Service 2000; 2003; 2007; 2008; 2012).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abutilon eremitopetalum | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2003) | |
Bidens hillebrandiana | USA ESA species proposed for listing | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012) | |
Bidens micrantha subsp. ctenophylla (ko`oko`olau) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2012) | |
Cyanea undulata | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2000) | |
Cyrtandra munroi | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2003) | |
Dubautia pauciflorula (Wahiawa Bog dubautia) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2000) | |
Euphorbia celastroides | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2007) | |
Kadua st-johnii | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2000) | |
Labordia triflora | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008) | |
Melanthera micrantha | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2000) | |
Melanthera micrantha subsp. exigua | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2000) | |
Pittosporum halophylum | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | Wood and Kiehn (2011) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Gregarious
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Pest and disease transmission
- Hybridization
- Rapid growth
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
Within its native range, P. carolinensis is used medicinally and has economic value to the botanicas and herbal shops that sell it in the form of dried powders, cut plants, live plants and oil extracts (Francis, 2004; Hodges and Bennett, 2006).
Environmental Services
P. carolinensis can rapidly colonize and stabilize disturbed areas and may serve as a nurse crop for later successional species within its native range (Francis, 2004). This species is also regularly visited by honeybees and may therefore be an important nectar and pollen source for these and other insects (Cate, 2007).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Revegetation
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Detection and Inspection
Top of pageThe movement of supplies and equipment associated with military activities is suspected of having moved the seeds of P. carolinensis over long distances throughout the Pacific (Space and Imada, 2004; PIER, 2015). Despite this, there are no rules or regulations in place specifically targeting the detection, or restricting the introduction of this taxon in interisland or international movement of goods or materials.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageIn the Canary Islands, P. carolinensis is superficially similar to the congeneric P. ovalis, but the two species differ in leaf characters. The leaves of P. carolinensis have (sub-) entire margins and are velvety to the touch. In contrast, the leaves of P. ovalis have a serrate margin and are glandular sticky (Verloove, 2013).
In the Hawaiian Islands, P. carolinensis may also superficially resemble the congeneric P. indica or the interspecific hybrid P. x fosbergii but also differs in floral and leaf morphology. The leaves of P. indica are 2.5-5 cm long and have coarsely dentate margins. In contrast, the leaves of P. carolinensis are 5-20 cm long, with a densely tomentose lower surface and have entire margins (or with small, callous teeth). Leaves of P. x fosbergii are green, lustrous and sparsely tomentose to glabrous and intermediate in length between the two parent species (Wagner et al., 1999).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
Smaller plants may be hand pulled or dug up if all of the roots are removed. The ability of P. carolinensis to resprout from roots or basal suckers may necessitate the treatment of larger plants with an appropriate herbicide (Smith, 1985; Francis, 2004).
Biological Control
There are currently no effective biological control agents available for P. carolinensis. A flower head feeding fly, Acinia picturata (Diptera: Tephritidae), was introduced from Mexico into Hawaii in 1959 but has proven ineffective to date (Alyokhin et al., 2001).
Chemical Control
Several herbicides have been evaluated and proven to be effective in controlling P. carolinensis. In particular, it is reported to be susceptible to drizzle applications of triclopyr, foliar applications of 1% glyphosate and applications of 2,4-D and dicamba (Motooka et al., 2002; Motooka et al., 2003).
Ecosystem Restoration
P. carolinensis is a relatively shade intolerant, disturbance adapted species. It may be replaced by later successional species (Smith, 1985; Francis, 2004). By minimizing site disturbance and restoring native plant cover it may provide a measure of biotic resistance and community resilience to reinvasion and establishment of P. carolinensis.
References
Top of pageAlyokhin AV; Messing RH; Duan JJ, 2001. Utilization of the exotic weed Pluchea odorata (Asteraceae) and related plants by the introduced biological control agent Acinia picturata (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Hawaii. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 11(6):703-710.
Amerson A; Binion Jr S; Philip C, 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192. Washington D.C., USA: Smithsonian Institution, 479 pp.
Bakutis ACL, 2005. Investigating seed dispersal and seed bank dynamics in Hawaiian mesic forest communities. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Department of Botany, University of Hawaii.
Bishop Museum, 2015. Online database. Natural sciences collections. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum. http://nsdb.bishopmuseum.org/
Cate CA, 2007. Monitoring, assessing and evaluating the pollinator species (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) found on a native brush site, a revegetated site and an urban garden. DPhil Thesis. College Station, Texas, USA: Texas A&M University.
Chai DK; Cuddihy LW; Stone CP, 1989. An inventory and assessment of anchialine pools in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park from Wahaula to Kaaha, Puna and Kau, Hawaii. Technical Report 69. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, 37pp.
Eldenäs P; Källersjö M; Anderberg AA, 1999. Phylogenetic placement and circumscription of tribes Inuleae s. str. and Plucheeae (Asteraceae): evidence from sequences of chloroplast gene ndhF. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 13:50-58.
Erickson TA; Puttock CF, 2006. Hawaii wetland field guide. An ecological and identification guide to wetlands and wetland plants of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: US Environmental Protection Agency, 293 pp.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of North America North of Mexico. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Fosberg F; Sachet M, 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123. Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution, 15 pp.
Gillis WT, 1977. Pluchea revisited. Taxon, 26:587-591.
Hammer RL, 2004. Florida Keys wildflowers: a field guide to wildflowers, trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the Florida Keys. Guilford, Connecticut, USA: Globe Pequot Press, 231 pp.
Hannaway DB; Fribourg HA, 2011. Country pasture/forage resources profiles. Rome, Italy: FAO, 93 pp.
Herrera PP; Ventosa I, 2005. Ecology of Cuban Asteraceae. Compositae Newsletter, 42:89-108.
Kadereit JW; Jeffrey C, 2010. The families and genera of vascular plants. Flowering plants: Eudicots - Asterales, 8. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 588 pp.
Khan R; Jarvis CE, 1989. The correct name for the plant known as Pluchea symphytifolia (Miller) Gillis (Asteraceae). Taxon, 38:659-662.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Motooka P; Ching L; Nagai G, 2002. Herbicidal weed control methods for pasture and natural areas of Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, 36 pp. http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/wc-8.pdf
Peng CI; Chen CH; Leu WP; Yen HF, 1998. Pluchea Cass. (Asteraceae: Inuleae) in Taiwan. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 39:287-297.
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Pratt LW; Abbott LL, 1996. Distribution and abundance of alien and native plant species in Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park. Technical Report 103. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, 89 pp.
Richardson A; King K, 2010. Plants of deep South Texas: a field guide to the woody and flowering species. College Station, Texas, USA: Texas A&M University Press, 457 pp.
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2015. Seed Information Database (SID) Version 7. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. http://data.kew.org/sid/
Smith CW; Tunison JT, 1992. Fire and alien plants in Hawaii: research and management implications for native ecosystems. In: Alien plant invasions in native ecosystems of Hawaii: management and research [ed. by Stone, C. P. \Smith, C. W. \Tunison, J. T.]. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, 394-408.
Space JC; Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Cont. no. 2003-006 to the Pac. Biol. Surv. USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
Stone BC, 1970. The flora of Guam. Micronesia, 6:1-659.
The Institute for Regional Conservation, 2015. The floristic inventory of South Florida database online. Delray Beach, Florida, USA: The Institute for Regional Conservation. http://regionalconservation.org/
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; determinations of whether designation of critical habitat is prudent for 81 plants and proposed designations for 76 plants from the islands of Kauai and Niihau, Hawaii. Federal Register Vol. 65, No, 216, 66808-66885. 50 CFR Part 17, RIN 1018-AG71. Portland, Oregon, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2003. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; final designation of critical habitat for three plant species from the island of Lanai, Hawaii; Proposed Rule. Federal Register, Vol. 68, No. 6: 1220-1274. 50 CFR Part 17, RIN 1018-AH10. Portland, Oregon, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Chamaesyce celastroides var. kaenana (Akoko). 5-Year Review. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, 10 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Labordia triflora (Kamakahala) 5-Year Review. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Listing 15 species on Hawaii Island as endangered and designating critical habitat for 3 species; proposed rule. Federal Register 77(201): 63927-64018. https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2012/10/17/2012-24550/endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-listing-15-species-on-hawaii-island-as-endangered-and
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Verloove F, 2013. New xenophytes from Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), with emphasis on naturalized and (potentially) invasive species. Collectanea Botanica, 32:59-82.
Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory. Isle Botanica (online), 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf
Whistler WA; Steele O, 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Botanical survey of the Kwajalein Atoll Islands. 111 pp.
Distribution References
Amerson A, Binion Jr S, Philip C, 1976. The natural history of Johnston Atoll. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 192., Washington D.C, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 479 pp.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Fosberg F, Sachet M, 1969. Wake Island vegetation and flora, 1961-1963. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 123, Washington, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 15 pp.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Richardson A, King K, 2010. Plants of deep South Texas: a field guide to the woody and flowering species., College Station, Texas, USA: Texas A&M University Press. 457 pp.
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Verloove F, 2013. New xenophytes from Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), with emphasis on naturalized and (potentially) invasive species. In: Collectanea Botanica, 32 59-82.
Whistler WA, 1996. Botanical survey of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, British Indian Ocean Territory., Isle Botanica. 49 pp. http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/2005NRMP-Appendixe-botanicalsurvey.pdf
Whistler WA, Steele O, 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. In: Botanical survey of the Kwajalein Atoll Islands, 111 pp.
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page31/05/2015 Original text by:
Charles Chimera, Hawaii-Pacific Weed Risk Assessment, Hawaii, USA
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