Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Pennisetum setaceum (Forsskal) Chiovenda, 1923
Preferred Common Name
- fountain grass
Other Scientific Names
- Cenchrus setaceus (Forssk.) Marrone
- Pennisetum cupreum Hitchc
- Pennisetum erythraeum Chiovenda
- Pennisetum macrostachyum Fresenius
- Pennisetum orientale var. altissimum
- Pennisetum parisii Trab
- Pennisetum phalariodes Schultes
- Pennisetum ruppelii Steud
- Pennisetum scoparium Chiovenda
- Pennisetum spectabile Figari & De Notaris
- Pennisetum spectabile Figari & De Notaris
- Pennisetum tiberiadis Boiss
International Common Names
- English: african fountain grass; crimson fountain grass; fountain grass; tender fountain grass
- Spanish: plumacho; rabo de gato; yerba de fuente
Local Common Names
- Germany: afrikanisches Lampenputzergras; einjähriges Lampenputzergras
- South Africa: Pronkgras
- Sweden: fjäderborstgräs
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pagePennisetum setaceum, commonly known as fountain grass, is a popular ornamental plant and has been planted widely in areas with warm, arid climates. It has spread by seed into natural areas from cultivated plants. Fountain grass has become invasive in Hawaii and the southern continental United States, Australia, the Canary Islands, southern Europe, and southern Africa. It establishes monocultures in many different habitats, but is particularly problematic in dry grasslands and early successional habitats. It increases fire frequency and the ability of fires to spread within a landscape and threatens rare plant species (Benton, 2009).
Fountain grass is listed as a category one invasive species in South Africa (PlantZAfrica, 2012). It is regulated as a noxious weed in the USA in Hawaii (USDA-NRCS, 2012) and Nevada (Nevada Department of Agriculture, 2012; Weed Center, 2012) and is on the noxious weed watch list in New Mexico (Weed Center, 2012). It is also listed as a noxious weed in New Zealand (HEAR, 2012) and in Australia in New South Wales and Queensland (Weeds Australia Database, 2012).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Cyperales
- Family: Poaceae
- Genus: Pennisetum
- Species: Pennisetum setaceum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe synonym Cenchrus setaceus (Forssk.) Morrone is based on a phylogenetic study of morphological and DNA traits that showed that Pennisetum and Cenchrus species belong in the same genus (Chemisquy et al. 2010). An earlier name for Pennisetum setaceum was Phalaris setacea Forssk (ITIS, 2012).
Pennisetum setaceum var. rubrum is now considered a new species, Cenchrus advena or Pennisetum advena (Chemisquy et al., 2010).
In the APG III (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) system, the Poaceae are in the Commelinids clade, Order Poales.
Description
Top of pageThis perennial clump-forming grass bears pretty pink to purple seed heads, making it a popular ornamental grass. However, inflorescences can develop from light green (immature) to tan or light buff in colour (mature) with little or no traces of pink. These different inflorescences are seen especially under sunny or dry conditions (C Daehler, University of Hawaii, USA, personal communication, 2013). The slender (0.2-0.4 cm wide), arching leaves grow to 0.6 m. The flowers and seeds grow as dense, cylindrical, bristly panicles 8-35 cm long on stalks that can reach 1.2 m in height. Leaf sheaths are usually smooth but often have edges lined with white hairs (Encycloweedia, 2012). The plant's name, fountain grass, comes from the appearance of the leaves and seed heads forming a spray from the base of the plant.
Distribution
Top of pageP. setaceum is widely distributed in warm, arid climates. It is widespread on the Hawaiian islands (found on Kauai, Lanai, Oahu, Kahoolawe, East Maui, Hawaii islands). In the continental United States it grows in Oregon, California, Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado as well as in Louisiana, Florida, and Tennessee (Wunderlin and Hansen, 2008; University of Tennessee, 2012; Jepson Flora Project, 2012; GBIF, 2012). The species is widespread in southern and central California and in Arizona. It grows throughout southern California and in the Sacramento Valley, central coast, and San Francisco Bay area (Jepson Flora Project, 2012). In Arizona it occurs in most of the southern counties. It is described as naturalized and escaped from cultivation in Broward, Miami-Dade and Palm Beach counties in Florida. It grows in three counties in Tennessee (University of Tennessee, 2012).
Australia also lists it in several regions. It is most widespread in Queensland, New South Wales and Western Australia, but it also occurs in Victoria, South Australia, and in arid areas of the Northern Territories. New Zealand collections of fountain grass show that it occurs in several important ecological regions in the country (GBIF, 2012).
Fountain grass was introduced to southern Africa from North Africa and is considered invasive in Namibia and South Africa (Joubert and Cunningham, 2002).
In Europe, it has naturalized in southern countries and is recorded as an invasive species in Sicily (Pasta et al., 2010).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 23 Apr 2020Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present | Native | El Kantara | ||||
Djibouti | Present | ||||||
Egypt | Present | Native | |||||
Eritrea | Present | Native | |||||
Eswatini | Present | ||||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | |||||
Kenya | Present | Native | |||||
Libya | Present | Native | |||||
Morocco | Present | Native | |||||
Namibia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Highland savannah and mountain savannah | |||
Somalia | Present | Native | Al Miskat Mountains | ||||
South Africa | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sudan | Present | Native | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | Ngorongoro Conservation Area | ||||
Tunisia | Present | Native | |||||
Zambia | Present | Native | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
Israel | Present | Native | |||||
Jordan | Present | Native | |||||
Lebanon | Present | Native | |||||
Oman | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Mt. Pinatubo, Luzon | ||||
Qatar | Present | Native | Rare, west coast | ||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Native | Bani Razam; 45 km from Abha | ||||
Syria | Present | Native | |||||
Yemen | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
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Cyprus | Present | ||||||
France | Present | Introduced | |||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
-Sardinia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sicily | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Malta | Present | ||||||
Portugal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | Andalucia, Granada, Almeria, Malaga, Marbella, Murcia, Valencia, Tenerife | ||||
-Balearic Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Canary Islands | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Tenerife, La Palma, Hierro, Gomero, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura with Lobos, Lanzarote with Graciosa | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Bermuda | Present | Introduced | Hamilton, waste places in town | ||||
Guadeloupe | Present | ||||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Baja California, Coahuila, Guanajuato, Michoacan, Sonora | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Arizona | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widespread Maricopa, Pima counties, along Colorado River in Mohave and LaPaz counties. Present in several other counties. Escaping cultivation in Sonora and Baja | |||
-California | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Sacramento Valley, San Francisco Bay, south to Baja along coast, San Joaquin Valley; Original citation: Jepson Flora Project (2012) | ||||
-Colorado | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Southeastern counties | ||||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Honolulu, Hawaii. Presumed eradicated from Maui and Kauai | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | Rio Grande Bosque, Sandoval | ||||
-Oregon | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
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Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-New South Wales | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Arid areas | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Brisbane, Townsville, Port Curtis | ||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | Eyre Peninsula | ||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Geraldton, Kimberleys, Red Hill, Wittecara Creek Reserve, John Forest National Park, Kwinana, Gosnells | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated on Hiva Oa, Raiatea, Tahiti, Rurutu | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Christchurch, Wanganui, Hamilton, North Island, Auckland, Western Northland Ecological Region, Waikato Ecological Region, Bay of Islands | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
South America |
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Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Not certain if planted or naturalized in Maracay, Caracas and Muaco |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageFountain grass comes from North Africa and it began to be sold as an ornamental plant in the late 1800s. Seeds were available in the United States as early as 1883. Plants were introduced to Hawaii in the early twentieth century as ornamental plants with the earliest collection made in 1914 (Tunison, 1992; Halvorson and Guertin, 2003). The earliest herbarium collection made in California dates to 1932 (Consortium of California Herbaria Project, 2012). It was grown in Tucson, Arizona, as an ornamental plant as early as 1940. The New Zealand Plant Conservation Network (2012) lists it as having been introduced to New Zealand in 1982. The earliest herbarium specimens from Australia were collected in Brisbane in 1930 with specimens from New South Wales and Western Australia collected before 1940 (GBIF, 2012). In Sicily, it was recorded as naturalized in the 1960s and has shown rapid spread since that time (Pasta et al., 2010).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Australia | Africa | Pre 1930 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Randall (2001); Randall (2002) | ||
Namibia | Africa | Pre 1985 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Joubert and Cunningham (2002) | ||
New Zealand | Africa | 1982 | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | New Zealand Plant Conservation Network (2012); New Zealand Plant Conservation Network (NZPCN) (2012) | ||
USA | Africa | 1880s-1900s | Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Tunison (1992) |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe main pathway for introduction of P. setaceum is through the horticultural trade. Plants and seeds are available at nurseries and by mail order. Seeds are easily dispersed by wind, water, animals and vehicles. Spread is often along roads and rivers (Rahlao et al., 2010a). It is most widespread in Hawaii and arid parts of Australia.
Fountain grass is listed as a category one invasive species in South Africa (PlantZAfrica, 2012) and is regulated as a noxious weed in the USA (Weed Center, 2012). It is also listed as a noxious weed in New Zealand (HEAR, 2012; EPPO, 2012) and in Australia in New South Wales and Queensland (Weeds Australia Database, 2012).
Habitat
Top of pageP. setaceum generally favours arid to semi-arid environments but occurs in mesic sites as well. It is outcompeted by other plants in wetter sites (EPPO, 2012). It often grows in disturbed areas such as along roadsides and railroad embankments and in mined areas (FloraBase, 2012). In natural areas in the southwestern USA and northern Mexico it has been found growing in grasslands, desert, desert shrublands, canyons, and rocky hillsides, coastal dunes, coastal sage scrub, and canyons. In Hawaii it grows on lava flows and rangeland at a wide range of elevations from sea level to 2900 m. In South Africa it is found in coastal vegetation, woodlands and grasslands (Rahlao et al. 2009; FloraBase, 2012).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Poulin et al. (2005) found that there is no genetic variation among populations in the USA, as would be expected if the plants were completely apomictic (they form seeds asexually). P. setaceum is a triploid whereas P. advena is a hexaploid that may be pollen-sterile (Halvorson and Guertin 2003). Plants have high phenotypic plasticity allowing them to establish in a wide range of habitats (Le Roux et al., 2007).
Reproductive Biology
Plants begin to produce seeds within one year of seed germination (EPPO, 2012). P. setaceum mainly reproduces by self-pollination but occasionally produces seeds through cross-pollination; Halvorson and Guertin (2003) cite two studies that found some sexual reproduction in P. setaceum, however most seeds are produced through apomixis. Wind and gravity move pollen within the plant and between plants (Halvorson and Guertin 2003). Seed production is sometimes reported as very low (1.7-5.7% per plant or an average of 62 viable seeds per plant) (Goergen and Daehler, 2001), but others report that 80% of seeds produced are viable (Nonner, 2005; WeedBusters, 2012) and Poulin et al. (2007) counted an average of 100 seeds per plant in a greenhouse study. Milton et al. (2008) reported a case of pseudo-vivipary from flooded plants in South Africa where seeds produced young plants before dispersing. Seeds can remain viable for six years in soil (Halvorson and Guertin, 2003). They do not need light to germinate and can germinate when covered lightly with soil (Nonner, 2005).
Physiology and Phenology
P. setaceum is a C4 perennial bunchgrass that can live up to 20 years (Encycloweedia, 2012). Plants begin to produce seeds within one year (EPPO, 2012). Seeds germinate late spring to early summer. Seedlings require some moisture to establish (Rahlao et al., 2010b). Plants can flower over a long time period from spring to late fall before they go dormant in winter in temperate environments.
P. setaceum allocates much of its biomass to roots and shoots allowing it to be a good colonizer. It has high photosynthetic rates that also enable it to compete effectively. It also shows phenotypic plasticity in growth allocation and photosynthetic rates potentially allowing it to colonize a wider range of habitats (Williams et al., 1995; Le Roux et al., 2007; Poulin et al., 2007).
Associations
In Hawaii, more than 75% of the roots of P. setaceum were associated with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (Koske et al., 1992). Mycorrhizae help plants obtain nutrients.
Environmental Requirements
P. setaceum prefers regions with mild winters and summers with some moisture. Fountain grass prefers open sunny areas with well-drained soils, but will grow in soil types from clay to sand and can persist in light shade. It grows best in regions with median rainfall of less than 127 mm/year (EPPO, 2012) but can be found in areas with more than 600 mm rainfall/year (Joubert and Cunningham, 2002). This species cannot tolerate freezing temperatures.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BW - Desert climate | Preferred | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Preferred | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
44 | -43 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 127 | 600 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- shallow
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageNatural enemies have not been studied for this species because several related species are economically important (Markin et al., 1992). Few insect or fungi species were found to attack fountain grass in Hawaii (Goergen and Daehler, 2001).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Seeds are dispersed by wind and water (Rahlao et al., 2010a). In Australia, seeds were found to have dispersed a quarter of a mile along a stream (Department of Primary Industries, Victoria 2012).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Seeds also attach to animal fur. Livestock are thought to be a vector for the movement of seeds (Halvorson and Guertin 2003).
Accidental Introduction
Wind created by the movement of vehicles disperses seeds along roadways. Seeds are also carried on vehicles. Introduction to the Canary Islands is thought to have occurred when machinery from the western Sahara was brought in to construct a new airport, but could also have come from plantings at the airport (Gobierno de Canarias, 1999).
Intentional Introduction
This ornamental plant is widely sold in the nursery industry. The popular variety 'Rubrum' which is now listed sometimes as a separate species, Pennisetum advena, has been used by landscape architects and home owners but tends to take on a brownish tinge that many landscapers find unattractive. P. setaceum is also available in the seed trade from at least two companies online and on E-Bay (B&T World Seeds in France and Hazzard's Seed Store, 2012). It is planted as an annual in colder regions.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Animal production | Accidental dispersal on animal fur | Yes | Yes | Halvorson and Guertin, 2003 |
Breeding and propagation | Ornamental plant sales | Yes | Yes | |
Disturbance | Roadsides, railways, mining | Yes | Florabase, 2012 | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Seed dispersal from ornamental plantings | Yes | Florabase, 2012 | |
Flooding and other natural disasters | Seed dispersal | Yes | Rahlao et al., 2009 | |
Garden waste disposal | Disposal of seed heads from previous year | Yes | Florabase, 2012 | |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Plants used for soil stabilization | Yes | Florabase, 2012 | |
Hitchhiker | Seeds stick to clothing, fur | Yes | Yes | Halvorson and Guertin, 2003 |
Horticulture | Ornamental plants | Yes | Yes | Florabase, 2012 |
Interconnected waterways | Seed dispersal | Yes | Florabase, 2012 | |
Internet sales | Seeds and plants available for purchase online | Yes | ||
Landscape improvement | New plantings and seeds carried on equipment | Yes | Yes | Joubert and Cunningham, 2002 |
Nursery trade | Ornamental plants | Yes | Yes | Florabase, 2012 |
Ornamental purposes | Planted as ornamental | Yes | Yes | Florabase, 2012 |
Seed trade | Listed by at least two online seed sellers and on E-Bay | Yes | Hazzard's Greenhouse, 2012; World Seeds, 2012 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Livestock | Seeds | Yes | Halvorson and Guertin, 2003 | |
Machinery and equipment | One possible incidence recorded of movement of seeds | Yes | Joubert and Cunningham, 2002 | |
Seeds can be ordered by mail | Yes | Hazzard's Greenhouse, 2012; World Seeds, 2012 | ||
Water | Seeds | Yes | Rahlao et al., 2010a | |
Wind | Seeds | Yes | Rahlao et al., 2010a |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageUnpalatable to cattle except for young shoots (Motooka et al., 2003). It is eaten by goats and camels (Department of Primary Industries, Victoria 2012).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageThe dry biomass produced by the plant increases fire frequency and spread by increasing fuel loads. It reduces moisture availability to surrounding plants and can alter nutrient-cycling (FloraBase, 2012).
Impact on Habitats
As an aggressive colonizer on lava flows this plant disrupts primary succession (Tunison 1992). It is fire-adapted and increases the intensity and spread of fires damaging dry land forest and scrub habitat. It limits shallow water resources to trees in a dryland forest in Hawaii (Cordell and Sandquist, 2008). Litton et al. (2008) studied carbon fluxes in a dry forest in Hawaii and found that P. setaceum increased the flux of carbon in and out of soils but did not change the total pool of carbon. It outcompetes the native grass Heteropogon contortus in Hawaii (Daehler and Carino, 1998). In Sicily, it becomes dominant in perennial grasslands of Ampelodesmos mauritanicus and Hyparrhenia hirta (Pasta, 2010).
Impact on Biodiversity
Thick stands reduce native species diversity (FloraBase, 2012). Fountain grass competes with rare native plants in Hawaii and the federally endangered Haplostachys haplostachya endemic to Hawaii. It also affects the endangered species Argyranthemum lidii on the island of Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands, Spain (IUCN, 2012).
In Hawaii, native species were especially negatively impacted in habitats with low resources (Questad et al. 2012). The increase in fire frequency in areas invaded by fountain grass can affect ground nesting birds and other animals (EPPO, 2012).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argyranthemum lidii | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) | Canary Islands; Spain (mainland) | Competition - monopolizing resources | IUCN, 2012 | |
Eragrostis deflexa | National list(s) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | Shaw, 1997 | |
Festuca hawaiiensis (Hawai'i fescue) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | Shaw, 1997 | |
Haplostachys haplostachya | National list(s) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | Shaw, 1997 |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Modification of fire regime
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts forestry
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Land reclamation
- Landscape improvement
- Soil conservation
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
Ornamental
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageCenchrus advena, (Wipff and Veldkamp) Morrone, synonymous with Pennisetum advena and Pennisetum setaceum var. rubrum, is most similar in appearance and most closely related. This is a new name given to the variety with 54 chromosomes and red coloration in the leaves and inflorescenses (Wippf and Veldkamp, 1999). The origin of this species is unknown. P. advena rarely produces viable seeds. Its morphology is slightly different to P.setaceum as it has wider leaf blades without a thickened mid-vein, it usually has secondary branching at aerial culm nodes, and the inflorescence has 10-17 fascicles/cm mid-inflorescence, the inner bristle of the fascicle has 4-10 ciliate or plumose bristles, and the lower floret is staminate (Q-Bank, 2012). Whereas, P. setaceum has 8-10 fascicles/cm, the inner bristle of the fascicle has 8-16 ciliate bristles, and the lower floret is usually sterile, although sometimes staminate (Q-Bank, 2012).
P. setaceum is also similar in appearance to Muhlenbergia emersleyi, native to the Sonoran desert region in the United States. M. emersleyi grows to approximately 1m and has flattened, nodding seed heads as opposed to cylindrical seed heads. Cenchrus ciliaris, buffelgrass, is a smaller grass with branched stems and shorter cylindrical seed heads (Arizona -Sonora Desert Museum, 2012). Pennisetum villosum is also similar in appearance but has shorter, white seed heads and rhizomatous growth (Jepson Flora Project, 2012).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention
The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization evaluated P. setaceum and listed it as a priority for action (Brunel et al., 2010). Fountain grass is also on a watch list for New Mexico and listed as a noxious weed in Nevada where it occurs infrequently still (Weed Center, 2012).
In Hawaii at the Pohakuloa Training Area, researchers studying control techniques for P. setaceum invited school groups, hosted teacher workshops, and led public tours on Earth Day to increase public awareness about fountain grass (Evans et al., 2005).
Containment/Zoning
Road and river interchanges, also associated with disturbances away from roads (Rahlao et al. 2010a). Questad et al. (2012) found that native species diversity declined more in lower resource habitats and recommend focusing on these habitats in addition to high diversity habitats.
Control
Physical/Mechanical Control
Seedlings are easily pulled out by hand and larger plants can be dug out using a pick or shovel. It is important to bag or otherwise destroy the seed heads to prevent further seed dispersal (Halvorson and Guertin, 2003). Skin irritation can occur from the leaves and seed heads so gloves should be worn (Queensland Government, 2012).
Biological Control
No biological control agents are currently being investigated.
Chemical Control
Herbicides containing fluazifop, quizalofop, sethoxydim, fenoxaprop, hexazinone, and glyphosate have been used to control fountain grass (FloraBase, 2012; Halvorson and Guertin, 2003). Some herbicides should not be used near waterways or trees.
Ecosystem Restoration
A study in Hawaii tested several techniques for re-establishing native vegetation (Cabin et al. 2002). Both reducing the abundance of P. setaceum and planting native species helped speed ecosystem restoration. Decreasing nitrogen levels may also favor native grasses (Carino and Daehler, 2002).
References
Top of pageArizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2012. Invaders of the Sonoran desert region. Tucson, Arizona, USA: Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. http://www.desertmuseum.org/invaders/
Benton N, 2009. Fountain grass: Pennisetum setaceum (Forsk.) Chiov. Viginia, USA: The Nature Conservancy. http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pese1.htm
Consortium of California Herbaria Project, 2012. Data provided by the participants of the Consortium of California Herbaria. California, USA: Regents of the University of California. http://ucjeps.berkeley
Dana ED, Sobrino D, Sanz M, 2005. Cuatro neofitos interesantes para la flora de Andalucia. (Cuatro neofitos interesantes para la flora de Andalucia.) Lagascalia, 25:170-175
Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, 2012. Victorian resources online: Invasive plants. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Department of Primary Industries. http://vro.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/lwm_pest_plants
EncycloWeedia, 2012. Pennisetum. California, USA: California Department of Food and Agriculture. http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/ipc/weedinfo/pennisetum.htm
EPPO, 2009. European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization Reporting Service, 4. Paris, France: EPPO. http://archives.eppo.int/EPPOReporting/2009/Rse-0904.pdf?utm_source=archives.eppo.org&utm_medium=int_redirect
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
Evans SA, Snell L, Kawakami K, Taylor J, Tominaga L, Tucker B, Wascher E, 2006. Report for the ecosystem management program Pohakuloa training area island of Hawai'I July 2003 to December 2005. Colorado, USA: Center for the Environmental Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University. http://manoa.hawaii.edu/hpicesu/DPW/PTA-EMP/2005/01
Florabase, 2013. Flora of Western Australia. Perth, Western Australia: Department of Environment and Conservation. http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/
GBIF, 2012. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). http://data.gbif.org
Gobierno Canarias de, 1999. Erradicacion del Pennisetum setaceum en la isla de La Palma (Erradicacion del Pennisetum setaceum en la isla de La Palma)., Spain: Cabildo Insular de La Palma, 124. http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/
Groves RH, Boden R, Lonsdale, WM, 2005. Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive Garden Plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts. Sydney, Australia: WWF. http://www.wwf.org.au/news_resources/resource_library/?1928/Jumping-the-Garden-Fence-Invasive-garden-plants-in-Australia-and-their-environmental-and-agricultural-impacts
Halvorson WL, Guertin P, 2003. Fact sheet for: Pennisetum setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov. USGS Weeds in the West: Status of Introduced Plants in Southern Arizona Parks. Tucson, Arizona, USA: USGS Southwest Biological Science Center. http://sdrsnet.srnr.arizona.edu/data/sdrs/ww/docs/pennseta.pdf
Hazzard's Greenhouse, 2012. Hazzard's Seed Store. Michigan, USA: Hazzard's Greenhouse. http://www.hazzardsgreenhouse.com/
HEAR, 2012. Alien species in Hawaii. Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/index.html
Hill JRC, 1972. The mine dump problem in Rhodesia. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, 69(4):65-73
ITIS, 2013. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution/NMNH. http://www.itis.gov/
IUCN, 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org/
Jepson Flora Project, 2012. Jepson eFlora. Berkeley, California, USA: University of California. http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/IJM.html
Lovich JE, 2000. Pennisetum setaceum Forsskal. In: Invasive plants of California's wildlands [ed. by Bossard, C. C. \Randall, J. M. \Hoshovsky, M. C.]. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press
Markin GP, Nagata RF, Gardner DE, 1992. Biological control of introduced weeds of native Hawaiian forests. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report, PSW-GTR-129. Berkeley, California, USA: US Department of, 84-88
Mas EG, Garcia-Molinari O, 2006. Guia ilustrada de yerbas comunes en Puerto Rico (Guia ilustrada de yerbas comunes en Puerto Rico)., Puerto Rico: University of Puerto Rico and USDA-NRCS, 303
Mootooka P, Castro L, Nelson D, Nagai G, Ching L, 2003. Rhynchelytrum repens. In: Weeds of Hawaii's Pastures and Natural Areas; an Identification and Management Guide. Manoa, Hawaii, USA: College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii
Nevada Department of Agriculture, 2012. Noxious weed list. Nevada, USA: Department of Agriculture. http://agri.state.nv.us/
New Zealand Plant Conservation Network (NZPCN), 2012. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/
Nonner ED, 2005. Seed bank dynamics and germination ecology of fountain grass (Pennisetum setaceum). Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii
Norton J, Majid SA, Boer B, Richer R, 2009. An illustrated checklist of the flora of Qatar. Wisconsin, USA: Browntown, 96
Pasta, S, Badalamenti, E, La Mantia, T, 2010. Tempo and mode of an undisputed invasion: Pennisetum setaceum (forssk.) Chiov. (Poaceae) in Sicily. (Tempi e modi di un'invasione incontrastata: Pennisetum setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov. (Poaceae) in Sicilia). Naturalista Sicilia, S. IV(3-4), 487-525.
PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PlantZAfrica, 2012. Declared weeds/invaders. Pretoria, South Africa: South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://www.plantzafrica.com/miscell/aliens6.htm
Q-Bank, 2012. Comprehensive databases on quarantine plant pests and diseases., Netherlands: Q-Bank. http://www.q-bank.eu/Plants/
Queensland Government, 2012. African Fountain Grass fact sheet. Queensland, Australia: Queensland Government. http://www.daff.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-African-Fountain-Grass-PP146
Questad EJ, Thaxton JM, Cordell S, 2012. Patterns and consequences of re-invasion into a Hawaiian dry forest restoration. Biological Invasions
Randall RP, 2002. A global compendium of weeds. A global compendium of weeds, xxx + 905 pp
Roux JJLe, Wieczorek AM, Wright MG, Tran CT, 2007. Super-genotype: global monoclonality defies the odds of nature. PLoS ONE, 2(7):e590
Shaw RB, 1997. Rare plants of Pohakuloa training area. Colorado, USA: Center for the Ecological Management of Military Lands, Department of Forest Sciences, Colorado State University. http://www.denix.mil/nr/upload/97-23-Rare-Plants-of-the-Pohakuloa-Training-Area-Hawaii-Part-I
Tellman B, 2002. Invasive Exotic Species in the Sonoran Desert. Arizona, USA: University of Arizona Press, 424
Tunison JT, 1992. Fountain grass control in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park: management considerations and strategies. In: Alien plant invasions in native ecosystems of Hawaii: management and research [ed. by Stone, C. P. \Smith, C. W. \Tunison, J. T.]. Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press, 376-393
University of Tennessee Herbarium, 2012. Pennisetum setaceum, Vascular plant herbarium. Tennessee, USA: University of Tennessee Herbarium. http://tenn.bio.utk.edu/vascular/database/vascular-database.asp CategoryID=Monocots&FamilyID=Poaceae&GenusID=Pennisetum&SpeciesID=setaceum
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2012. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Valdes B, Scholz H, 2009. Euro and Med Plantbase. Berlin, Germany: Euro and Med Plantbase. http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/query.asp
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Lorence DH, 2005. Flora of the Hawaiian Islands. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/index.htm
Weed Centre Center for Invasive Plant Management, 2012. State and province noxious weed lists. Montana, USA: Montana State University. http://www.weedcenter.org/resources/state
Weedbusters, 2012. Weedbusters (online). Matangi, New Zealand. http://www.weedbusters.org.nz/
Weeds Australia Database, 2012. Noxious weeds list., Australia: Australian Weeds Committee. http://www.weeds.org.au/noxious.htm
Wipff JK, Veldkamp JF, 1999. Pennisetum advena sp. nov. (Poaceae: Paniceae): a common ornamental grass throughout the southern United States. Sida, Contributions to Botany, 18(4):1031-1036
World Seeds B&T, 2012. Pennisetum setaceum Paguignan, 34210 Aigues-Vives, France. Pennisetum setaceum. Aigues-Vives, France: B&T World Seeds. http://b-and-t-world-seeds.com/carth.asp?species=Pennisetum%20setaceum%20cs&sref=1928
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Distribution References
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2012. Invaders of the Sonoran desert region., Tucson, Arizona, USA: Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. http://www.desertmuseum.org/invaders/
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
GBIF, 2012. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Groves RH, Boden R, Lonsdale WM, 2005. Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive Garden Plants in Australia and their environmental and agricultural impacts., Sydney, Australia: WWF. http://www.wwf.org.au/news_resources/resource_library/?1928/Jumping-the-Garden-Fence-Invasive-garden-plants-in-Australia-and-their-environmental-and-agricultural-impacts
Hill J R C, 1972. The mine dump problem in Rhodesia. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal. 69 (4), 65-73.
Lovich JE, 2000. Pennisetum setaceum Forsskal. In: Invasive plants of California's wildlands, [ed. by Bossard CC, Randall JM, Hoshovsky MC]. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press.
Más EG, García-Molinari O, 2006. (Guia ilustrada de yerbas comunes en Puerto Rico)., Puerto Rico: University of Puerto Rico and USDA-NRCS. viii + 303 pp.
Norton J, Majid SA, Boer B, Richer R, 2009. An illustrated checklist of the flora of Qatar., Wisconsin, USA: Browntown. 96.
Pasta S, Badalamenti E, La Mantia T, 2010. Tempo and mode of an undisputed invasion: Pennisetum setaceum (forssk.) Chiov. (Poaceae) in Sicily. (Tempi e modi di un'invasione incontrastata: Pennisetum setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov. (Poaceae) in Sicilia). In: Naturalista Sicilia, S. IV (3-4) 487-525.
PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Tellman B, 2002. Invasive Exotic Species in the Sonoran Desert., Arizona, USA: University of Arizona Press. 424.
University of Tennessee Herbarium, 2012. Pennisetum setaceum, Vascular plant herbarium., Tennessee, USA: University of Tennessee Herbarium. http://tenn.bio.utk.edu/vascular/database/vascular-database.aspCategoryID=Monocots&FamilyID=Poaceae&GenusID=Pennisetum&SpeciesID=setaceum
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2012. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Valdes B, Scholz H, 2009. Euro and Med Plantbase., Berlin, Germany: http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed/query.asp
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Lorence DH, 2005. Flora of the Hawaiian Islands., Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/index.htm
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Australian weed risk assessment for Pennisetum setaceum | http://invasivespecies.org.au/traction/permalink/wra6747 | |
Invasive species of south Africa | http://invasives.org.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=437&Itemid=106 | |
Queensland Fact Sheet for Pennisetum setaceum | http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-African-Fountain-Grass-PP146.pdf | |
Sonoran Desert Museum, Invaders of the Sonoran Desert Region | http://www.desertmuseum.org/invaders/invaders_fountaingrass.php | |
Weed Busters New Zealand | http://weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID=124 |
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