Oeceoclades maculata (monk orchid)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Oeceoclades maculata (Lindl.) Lindl. 1833
Preferred Common Name
- monk orchid
Other Scientific Names
- Aerobion maculatum (Lindl.) Spreng.
- Angraecum maculatum Lindley.
- Angraecum monophyllum A. Rich
- Epidendrum connivens Vell.
- Eulophia ledienii. N. E. Br.
- Eulophia mackenii. Rolfe ex Hemsl.
- Eulophia maculata (Lindl.) Rchb.
- Eulophia monophylla S. Moore
- Eulophidium ledienii (N.E. Br.) De Wild.
- Eulophidium mackenii (Rolfe ex Hemsl.) Schltr.
- Eulophidium maculatum (Lindl.) Pfitzer.
- Eulophidium maculatum var. pterocarpum Hauman
- Eulophidium monophyllum Schltr.
- Eulophidium nyassanum Schltr.
- Eulophidium warneckeanum Kraenzl
- Geodorum pictumo Link
- Graphorchis maculata (Lindl.) Kuntze.
- Limodorum maculatum (Lindl.) Lodd.
- Oeceoclades mackenii (Rolfe ex Hemsl.) Garay & P. Taylor.
- Oeceoclades maculata var. pterocarpa (Hauman) Garay & P. Taylor
- Oeceoclades monophylla Garay & P. Taylor.
International Common Names
- English: African spotted orchid; ground orchid; lawn orchid
- Spanish: orquídea monje; orquídea morada
Local Common Names
- Cuba: lengua de vaca; oceoclades
- Dominican Republic: orquídea de tierra
- Puerto Rico: orquídea de misiones
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageO. maculata is a terrestrial orchid native to Africa (Garay and Taylor, 1976) and Madagascar (Madagascar Catalogue, 2012) with invasive behaviour. Currently, this species is found throughout the Neotropics, making it one of the most successful invasive plants (Stern, 1988) and it is included in the World Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). Among the traits that likely have contributed to the successful spread and invasion of this species within its new environment are a wide environmental tolerance, efficient reproductive system, and fast growth. O. maculata is autogamous and apomitic and each fruit can produce thousands to millions of small seeds. O. maculata is a fast-growing species able to grow from seedling to reproductive stage in approximately one year (González-Díaz and Ackerman, 1988; Cohen and Ackerman, 2009).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Orchidales
- Family: Orchidaceae
- Genus: Oeceoclades
- Species: Oeceoclades maculata
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Orchidaceae is one of the largest and most diverse monocot families. This family includes about 880 genera and 22,075 species broadly distributed over the world, except in Antarctica (Ackerman, 1995). New species are continually being described and numerous natural and artificial hybrids exist. The genus Oeceoclades is mostly terrestrial in habitat with a few species extending into very arid environments, which is unusual for an orchid. According to Ackerman (1995), J. Lindley named this plant for its distinctively mottled leaves and used the Latin word for “spotted”. O. maculata is native to Africa; however, it was first described in 1821 as Angraecum maculatum by Lindley from a collection made by Loddiges in 1816 from Brazil (Garay and Taylor, 1976). O. maculata is the only species in the genus that is currently distributed outside Africa (Cohen and Ackerman, 2009).
Description
Top of pageTerrestrial or epilithic herb up to 40 cm tall; rhizomatous; appearing stemless, but with pseudo-bulbs (shortened and swollen stems). Pseudo-bulbs ovoid and clustered, up to 4 cm long, each producing a single leaf. Leaf glossy, dark green, with silvery gray mottling, up to 30 cm long and 5 cm wide, fleshy, lanceolate to elliptic; margins entire, base appearing petiolate, tips acute; blade slightly folded lengthwise down the middle. Inflorescence solitary, up to 40 cm long, with 5-20 flowers that mature sequentially. Flowers up to 1.5 cm across, petals and sepals similar, slightly cupped, elliptic, up to 10 cm long, light brown, cream or greenish pink, with one large lower petal (“lip”) deeply 3-lobed and white with purple lines; a tubular, bulbous-tipped spur (sac-like appendage) protruding from beneath the lip. Stamens, style, and stigma combined into one white structure (“the column”) up to 0.5 cm long. Fruit is a pendant capsule 2-3 cm long with abundant minute seeds (Dressler, 1993; Ackerman, 1995).
Distribution
Top of pageO. maculata is native to Africa (Garay and Taylor, 1976), Madagascar (Madagascar Catalogue, 2012) and several small adjacent islands (Stern, 1988). It was introduced to Brazil at the beginning of the eighteenth century and spread rapidly from Brazil up through Venezuela, across to Bolivia, south to Argentina (Stern,1988), and into Central America. This species is also widely distributed in Florida (Wunderlin and Hansen, 2012), and the West Indies including Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Bahamas (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012). Because orchids are commonly used in horticulture and floristry, it is likely that this species has a wider geographical distribution than the official records suggest, particularly in tropical countries where conditions for cultivation are more favourable.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Jan 2020Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Angola | Present | Native | |||||
Burundi | Present | Native | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Native | |||||
Gabon | Present | Native | |||||
Ghana | Present | Native | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Native | |||||
Liberia | Present | Native | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Native | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Native | |||||
Senegal | Present | Native | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Native | |||||
Sudan | Present | Native | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | |||||
-Zanzibar Island | Present | Native | |||||
Togo | Present | Native | |||||
Uganda | Present | Native | |||||
Zambia | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | 1990 | Campeche, Quintana Roo, Yucatán, Tabasco. First populations were detected in Yucatan in 1990 | |||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | Saba | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | 1966 | Invasive | Mona, Desecheo, Vieques, Guánica, Luquillo | ||
Saint Lucia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Present on Gros Piton, rare in Saint Lucia | ||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | Reported in a 1977 collection (Kew, 2012) | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | St. John | ||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | 1974 | Invasive | Commercialization prohibited, however, plant still available through the internet | ||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Santa Cruz, Tarija | ||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Acre | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Amazonas | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Maranhao | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Para | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Paraiba | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Piaui | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Rondonia | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Roraima | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Sergipe | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
-Tocantins | Present | Introduced | Spontaneous | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Guayas | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Amazonas, Bolivar, Falcon, Zulia, Distrito Federal |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageO. maculata was introduced to Brazil probably at the beginning of the eighteenth century and it was first described in 1821 from a Brazilian collection (Garay and Taylor, 1976). Since then, it spread at an accelerated rate through tropical and subtropical America, rapidly colonizing environments with strong anthropogenic intervention (Stern, 1988). In Puerto Rico, it was first noted in 1966 and has rapidly spread throughout the entire island occupying a wide range of habitats including mogotes (karst hills), moist, wet secondary forests, and dry forests (i.e., Guánica; González-Díaz and Ackerman, 1988). In 1987, O. maculata was first collected in the rainforest of the Luquillo Mountains (Cohen and Ackerman, 2009).
In Florida, O. maculata was established before 1974 either as an escapee from cultivation or through a range expansion from nearby Caribbean islands (Stern, 1988). O. maculata spread throughout Florida in less than 10 years, rapidly colonizing new habitats. By 2001, it was reported from over 70 conservation areas throughout south Florida from disturbed uplands, pine rocklands, prairie, rockland hammocks, pine flatwoods, maritime forests, and hardwood hammocks. In 2001 it was classified as a category II invasive species by the Florida Exotic Pest Plants Council (FLEPPC) and targeted for removal from commercial production by Florida Growers Associations. O. maculata was removed from FLEPPC category II in 2003.
In Mexico, the first population of O. maculata was recorded on the Yucatan Peninsula in the early 1990s. Since then, this species has been reported as widely dispersed in south-eastern Mexico, thriving in moderately disturbed as well as in well-conserved wet forest and seasonally dry tropical forest (Salazar and Ballesteros, 2011).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of O. maculata is high. It is a successful invader and has specific traits related to reproduction and growth that likely facilitate its spread into new habitats. In addition, this species is still sold in the nursery and landscape trade in many tropical countries and it is also available to the public through internet sites (i.e., garden and landscape companies online). Thus, the probability of colonizing new areas remains high.
Habitat
Top of pageO. maculata has a broad natural distribution and is found in wide variety of habitats including shaded areas and disturbed habitats. It is found in dry to wet forests, coastal areas, pine forests, prairie and rockland hammocks, pine flatwoods, maritime forests, and hardwood hammocks. It can inhabit areas from sea level to 750 m altitude (González-Díaz and Ackerman, 1988; Stern, 1988; Cohen and Ackerman, 2009).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Chromosome number for this species varies from 52-58 (2n) depending on the geographic location (Felix and Guerra, 2000).
Reproductive Biology
Pollination in O. maculata is primarily wind or rain-assisted. The species is primarily autogamous (González-Díaz and Ackerman, 1988), however outcrossing can eventually occur (Aguiar et al., 2012). Two butterfly species, Heliconius ethilla var. narcaea and Heliconius erato var. phyllis have been observed visiting and pollinating flowers of O. maculata in Brazil (Aguiar et al., 2012).
Physiology and Phenology
Flowering season has been reported from September through December (peaking in October) in Florida, from August to November in Puerto Rico, and from December to February in São Paulo, Brazil. In most locations, flowering occurs during the rainy season, resulting in the formation of fruits in the absence of pollinator activity (Aguiar et al., 2012).
Longevity
Under favourable conditions plants can live up to 15 years.
Nutrition and Associations
All orchids have an obligate relationship with mycorrhizal symbionts during seed germination, with most of the symbionts being Rhizoctonia-like fungi (Arditti, 1992). This group of fungi includes anamorphs of Tulasnella, Ceratobasidium, and Thanatephorus. Most orchid species hosted more than one lineage, demonstrating considerable variation in mycorrhizal associations even among related orchid species. It has been suggested that the specificity of the mycorrhizal association may be connected with diversification within the family (Otero and Flanagan, 2006).
Environmental Requirements
O. maculata is an orchid with an unusual breadth of habitat tolerance. It is able to inhabit dry and wet forests, as well as coastal forests and disturbed areas. However, a study from Puerto Rico demonstrates that survival rates are higher in shaded areas and flat terrain where the probability of getting swept away by heavy rains or landslides decreases (Cohen and Ackerman, 2009).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lopholeucaspis cockerelli | Herbivore | All Stages | not specific | No | No |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageEnemies of O. maculata have not been documented. Orchids in general are not affected by herbivorous insects, with the exception of Riodininae larvae (Lepidoptera) which may be found feeding on orchids (Hall, 2003).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageMost orchids including O. maculata produce thousands to millions of minute dust-like seeds that are mainly wind-dispersed (Arditti, 1992).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Yes | Yes | Stern (1988) | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | Yes | Stern (1988) | |
Nursery trade | Seeds and plants sold online | Yes | Yes | |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | Stern (1988) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Seeds and plants sale online | Yes | Yes |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageO. maculata has been identified as a weed that can smother native plants where it has been introduced. This may be due to the fact that this species is able to grow rapidly, colonizing new areas and forming dense stands and therefore interfering with seedling germination and establishment of young plants (Stern 1988). In addition, invasive orchid species may be competing for fungal associates and pollinators, therefore adversely affecting the fitness of native orchid species (Cohen and Ackerman, 2009). Further studies are needed to identify and quantify competition mechanisms and fungi-associations among orchids.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerant of shade
- Highly mobile locally
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Conflict
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageOrchids are widely used in horticulture and floristry, but also increasingly in the pharmaceuticals and fragrance industries. Few orchid species are economically important outside the horticultural trade: the fruits of several species of Vanilla are the source of the spice vanilla, and the dry roots of some species of Dactylorhiza, Eulophia, and Orchis are used to produce salep, a flour consumed in northern Africa, the Middle East (especially Turkey), and Asia. Some species are locally used for medicinal purposes; the mucilage from pseudo-bulbs of several species is sometimes used as glue; and in the Far-East the stems of some species of Dendrobium are split into strips used to weave handicrafts. O. maculata is used as an ornamental and is available through the nursery trade.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Currently there is no effective control known for O. maculata. Plants can be dug out and fruits can be bagged and disposed of properly, however the suggested procedure seems impractical due to the extensive areas occupied by this species. International trade of this species should be prohibited. Biological and chemical controls are unknown for this species; studies in these areas are highly desirable.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 78:1-581.
Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Ackerman JD, 1995. An orchid flora of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 73:1-203.
Arditti J, 1992. Fundamentals of orchid biology. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons, xii + 691 pp.
Balick MJ; Nee M; Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85:1-246.
Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Correa A; Galdames MDC; Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama.), Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 599 pp.
Correll DS; Correll HB, 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago. Vaduz, Germany: J. Cramer, 1692 pp.
Dodson CH, 1992. Checklist of the Orchids of the Western Hemisphere Collation: Draft., USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Library.
Dodson CH; Bennett DE, 1980. Orchids of Ecuador. Icones Plantarum Tropicarum. Missouri Botanical Garden, 1:101-200.
Dodson CH; Bennett DE, 1989. Orchids of Peru. Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, Series II. Missouri Botanical Garden, 1:1-200.
Dressler RL, 1993. Field guide to the orchids of Costa Rica and Panama. Ithaca, USA: Cornell University Press.
Dressler RL, 2003. Orchidaceae. Monograph in Systematics Botany, Missouri Botanical Garden, 93:1-595. [Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica. Vol. 3. Monocotiledóneas (Orchidaceae-Zingiberaceae).]
Forzza RC; Leitman PM; Costa AF; Carvalho Jr AA, et al. , 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Garay LA; Taylor P, 1976. The genus Oeceoclades Lindl. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 24. 249-274. http://www.botanicus.org/page/953890
González-Torres LR; Rankin R; Palmarola A (eds), 2012. Plantas Invasoras en Cuba. Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6:1-140.
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Hall JPW, 2003. Phylogenetic reassessment of the five forewing radial-veined tribes of Riodininae (Lepidoptera: Riodinidae). Systematic Entomology, 28:23-38.
Madagascar Catalogue, 2012. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar. Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Research and Conservation Program. http://www.efloras.org/madagascar
Mori S; Buck B; Gracie C; Tulig M, 2008. Plants and Lichens of Saba. New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/saba/
Otero JT; Flanagan NS, 2006. Orchid diversity: Beyond deception. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 21:64 - 65.
Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2012. United Kingdom Overseas Territories Herbarium., UK: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, UK Overseas Territories Science Team. http://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/UKOT
Wunderlin RP; Hansen BF, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida. www.plantatlas.usf.edu
Distribution References
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 78 1-581.
Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85 1-246.
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama. (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama)., Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 599 pp.
Correll DS, Correll HB, 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago., Vaduz, Germany: J Cramer. 1692 pp.
Dodson CH, 1992. Checklist of the Orchids of the Western Hemisphere Collation: Draft., USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Library.
Dodson CH, Bennett DE, 1980. Orchids of Ecuador. Icones Plantarum Tropicarum. In: Missouri Botanical Garden, 1 101-200.
Dodson CH, Bennett DE, 1989. Orchids of Peru. Icones Plantarum Tropicarum. In: Missouri Botanical Garden, 1 (II) 1-200.
Dressler RL, 2003. Orchidaceae. In: Monograph in Systematics Botany, Missouri Botanical Garden. [Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica. Vol. 3. Monocotiledóneas (Orchidaceae-Zingiberaceae).], 93 1-595.
Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA et al, 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil. (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Garay LA, Taylor P, 1976. The genus Oeceoclades Lindl. In: Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 24 249-274. http://www.botanicus.org/page/953890
González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A, 2012. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba). In: Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6 [ed. by González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A]. 1-140.
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean)., http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Madagascar Catalogue, 2012. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar., Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Research and Conservation Program. http://www.efloras.org/madagascar
Mori S, Buck B, Gracie C, Tulig M, 2008. Plants and Lichens of Saba., New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/saba/
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds., Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia. 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2012. United Kingdom Overseas Territories Herbarium., UK: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, UK Overseas Territories Science Team. http://herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/UKOT
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Tampa, Florida, USA: Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Flora of Madagascar | http://www.efloras.org/madagascar | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil | http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/ | |
Plants of the Eastern Caribbean | http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html |
Contributors
Top of page10/10/12 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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