Emilia fosbergii (Florida tassel-flower)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Inflorescences

Emilia fosbergii (Florida tassel-flower, Cupid's-shaving-brush); inflorescences.

©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo-Rodriguez

Inflorescences

Emilia fosbergii (Florida tassel-flower, Cupid's-shaving-brush); inflorescences.

©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo-Rodriguez

Inflorescence

Emilia fosbergii (Florida tassel-flower, Cupid's-shaving-brush); close-up of inflorescence.

©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo-Rodriguez

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Emilia fosbergii Nicolson

Preferred Common Name

Florida tassel-flower

Other Scientific Names

Emilia javanica (Burm. f.) C.B. Rob.
Emilia sagittata DC.
Emilia sonchifolia var. rosea Bello

International Common Names

English: Cupid's-shaving-brush; Flora's paintbrush; purple emilia; red sow thistle
Spanish: clavelito; lamparita; pincel de amor; pincel de poeta; pincelillo
Chinese: ying rong hua

Local Common Names

Colombia: clavelillo
Dominican Republic: pincelito
Lesser Antilles: Cupid's paintbrush; rabbit meat; red tassel
Puerto Rico: clavelito colorado; clavlitos del cafetal
Venezuela: hierba socialista

Summary of Invasiveness

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E. fosbergii is a cosmopolitan annual herb included in the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It is fast-growing, with the capacity to grow as a weed and colonize disturbed areas, waste ground, gardens, abandoned farmland, coastal forests, forest edges, pastures, roadsides, rocky areas, and riverbanks (Wagner et al., 1999; Vibrans, 2011; Pruski 2014). It produces large amounts of wind-dispersed seeds (>5000 seeds per plant; Mejía et al., 1994) which is a feature facilitating the likelihood of spreading and colonizing new habitats. Currently, E. fosbergii is listed as invasive in Mexico, Central America, West Indies, and on several islands in the Pacific Ocean (see Distribution Table for details).

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Emilia
Species: Emilia fosbergii

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Asteraceae is one of the most species-rich families of flowering plants. The family includes 1620 genera and about 23,600 species (Stevens, 2012). Species within the Asteraceae are very variable in their growth form and habitat, but may be recognized by their “capitulate” and involucrate inflorescences in which numerous small flowers open first on the outside and are infrequently subtended by bracts. The anthers in this family are usually fused and form a tube through which the style extends before the two stigmatic lobes separate and become recurved. The rather small, single-seeded fruits usually have a plumose “pappus” and are frequently dispersed by wind (Stevens, 2012).

The genus Emilia comprises approximately 100 species distributed mainly in tropical regions of the Old World (Pruski, 2014). E. fosbergii is a cosmopolitan species spread throughout the tropical and humid subtropical regions, with wide distribution in tropical and subtropical America (Pruski, 2014).

Description

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E. fosbergii is an annual, erect or ascending herb, branched, 20 to 50 cm (up to 100 cm) tall. Stems glabrous to sparsely pilose or sometimes prominently villous-pilose near the axils of the middle cauline leaves. Leaves alternate, broadly ovate to oblanceolate, often tapering to a prominently winged petiole and therefore appearing pandurate, the base sessile to auriculate, the margin weakly serrate to dentate or sometimes lobed, the teeth callose-tipped, overall 5-10 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, about 2 times longer than wide, the uppermost leaves reduced to linear serrate clasping bracts. Inflorescence of one to several headed, loose, corymbiform cymes arising terminally or laterally in the axils of the upper cauline leaves. Heads turbinate or sometimes weakly urceolate or becoming weakly campanulate in age, robust, 2-3 times longer than wide, the florets prominently exserted approximately 2 mm beyond the involucre; involucral bracts 8-13, linear, (7-) 9-12 mm long; receptacle flat to convex, the carpopodia forming prominent tubercles after achenes have been shed; florets 15-30, varying greatly in size with the robustness of the plant, the corollas pink to light purple or red but not orange. Achene reddish brown to light tan, columnar, approximately 5 mm long with a row of strigose-hirsute pubescence on each of the 5 prominent ribs; pappus of abundant, white, capillary hairs (Flora of Taiwan Editorial Committee, 2014; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014).

Plant Type

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Annual
Herbaceous
Seed propagated

Distribution

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The origin of E. fosbergii is uncertain, but most authors agree that it is native to the Old World (USDA-ARS, 2014). It has been suggested that it may have originated in Asia and Africa, but it is now widely distributed in warm regions of the world, principally throughout the New World (Wagner et al., 1999; Gargiullo et al., 2008; Flann, 2009; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014; Pruski, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Feb 2022

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
Japan	Present	Introduced			PIER (2014)	Bonin Islands
Taiwan	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2014) Seebens et al. (2017)	Naturalised
Europe
Belgium	Present	Introduced	1813		Seebens et al. (2017)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Bahamas	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Barbados	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Belize	Present	Introduced			Balick et al. (2000)
British Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)	Guana
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Chacón and Saborío (2012)
Dominica	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Kairo et al. (2003)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Davidse et al. (2014)
Grenada	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Guadeloupe	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Guatemala	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2014)	Naturalised
Haiti	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Martinique	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Mexico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia (2004)	Weed
Montserrat	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2014)	Naturalised
Panama	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Correa et al. (2004)	Naturalised. Canal, Chiriqui, Boquete, Cocle, Cerro Azul
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Graveson (2012)	Naturalised, very common
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present	Introduced			Broome et al. (2007)	Widespread
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Introduced			Davidse et al. (2014)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
United States	Present				CABI (Undated)	Present based on regional distribution.
-California	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2014)
-Florida	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2014)
-Georgia	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2014)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Wagner et al. (1999) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2014)
-Texas	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2014)
Oceania
American Samoa	Present	Introduced			Whistler (1988)
Australia	Present	Introduced	1997		Seebens et al. (2017) Thompson (2006)
Fiji	Present	Introduced			PIER (2014)
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Florence et al. (2013)
Guam	Present	Introduced			Fosberg et al. (1979)
Marshall Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Whistler and Steele (1999)
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced			Raulerson (2006)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced		Invasive	I3N-Argentina (2013)	Misiones, Iguazu, M. Belgano
Bolivia	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	USDA-ARS (2014)	Naturalised, lowlands
Brazil	Present				CABI (Undated) Silva and Santos (2017) Vergaças et al. (2018)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Acre	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Alagoas	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Amapa	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Amazonas	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Bahia	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Ceara	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014) Silva and Santos (2017)
-Espirito Santo	Present, Only in captivity/cultivation	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Goias	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated a)
-Maranhao	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Mato Grosso	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Minas Gerais	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014) Vergaças et al. (2018)
-Para	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Paraiba	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Parana	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Pernambuco	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Piaui	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Rondonia	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Roraima	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Santa Catarina	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014) Vergaças et al. (2018)
-Sergipe	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
-Tocantins	Present	Introduced			Moraes et al. (2014)
Colombia	Present	Introduced			Idárraga-Piedrahita et al. (2011)
Ecuador	Present	Introduced			Jørgensen and León-Yànez (1999)	Guayas, Los Rios
French Guiana	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)
Guyana	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)
Paraguay	Present	Introduced		Naturalized	Zuloaga et al. (2008)	Naturalised. Alto Parna, Amambay, Caaguazu, Canindeyu, Canindeyu, Central Cordillera, Guaira
Peru	Present	Introduced			Davidse et al. (2014)
Suriname	Present	Introduced			Funk et al. (2007)
Venezuela	Present	Introduced			Hokche et al. (2008)

History of Introduction and Spread

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E. fosbergii was probably introduced and established in the New World in the latter part of the nineteenth century, probably intially in the USA and the West Indies and subsequently from Mexico to northern South America (Smith 1991; Wagner et al., 1999; Borges 2014; Pruski 2014). It was apparently introduced into islands in the Pacific Ocean in the early part of the twentieth century (Smith, 1991).

Risk of Introduction

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The risk of introduction of E. fosbergii is high. The species produces large numbers of small wind-dispersed seeds and has the potential to grow as a weed in ruderal areas, gardens, and pasture lands. Consequently, this species has the potential to spread much further than it has to date.

Habitat

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E. fosbergii is a common weed in open and disturbed areas, cultivated land, pastures, coastal forests, forest edges, along roadsides and riverbanks, and in rocky areas in moist and seasonally dry areas (Gargiullo et al., 2008; Vibrans, 2011; Graveson, 2012). In Hawaii, where this species is listed as invasive, it is common in low elevation, dry, urban and disturbed habitats (Wagner et al., 1999). It can also be cultivated as a garden ornamental (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Natural

Hosts/Species Affected

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E. fosbergii has been listed as a weed in rice plantations in Colombia and coffee plantations in Costa Rica. It is also listed as a weed in cassava and sugarcane plantations in Central and South America (Echegoyen-Ramos et al., 1996, Murillo et al., 2006; Vibrans, 2011).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee)	Rubiaceae	Main
Manihot esculenta (cassava)	Euphorbiaceae	Main
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main
Psidium guajava (guava)	Lithomyrtus	Unknown	Silva and Santos (2017)
Saccharum	Poaceae	Main
Vitis (grape)	Vitaceae	Unknown	Vergaças et al. (2018)

Growth Stages

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Flowering stage, Fruiting stage, Seedling stage, Vegetative growing stage

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

E. fosbergii is a tetraploid species (Moraes and Guerra, 2010) with a chromosome number of 2n = 20 (Guerra and Nogueira, 1990).

Longevity, Phenology and Reproduction

E. fosbergii is a fast-growing annual herb (Flann, 2009; Pruski et al., 2014). It is wind-pollinated and under favourable environmental conditions (warm and humid) it produces flowers and seeds for many months (Vibrans, 2011). In Panama, it has been collected in flower from August to December (Correa et al., 2004).

Environmental Requirements

E. fosbergii grows as a weed, so it prefers areas with full sunlight and moderate to high water availability. This species prefers sandy-loam soils but can be found growing on a range of soils in wet to seasonally dry regions (Gargiullo et al., 2008; Vibrans, 2011).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
BS - Steppe climate	Tolerated	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Tolerated	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)

Soil Tolerances

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Soil reaction

neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Meloidogyne incognita	Parasite	Plants\|Whole plant	not specific
Pratylenchus	Parasite	Plants\|Whole plant	not specific

Notes on Natural Enemies

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E. fosbergii is reported as a host of the nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus spp. The whitefly species Bemisia tabaci, Aleurocanthus woglumi, Aleurotrachelus sp., Aleurothrixus sp., Aleuroplatus sp., and Trialeurodes have also been reported for this species (Alan et al., 1995). In Jamaica, the lethal yellowing (16Sr IV) group of phytoplasmas was recently reported affecting E. fosbergii (Brown et al., 2008).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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E. fosbergii spreads by seeds. Each plant has the potential to produce >5000 wind-dispersed seeds (Mejía et al., 1994). Seeds may be secondarily dispersed as a contaminant in crop seeds, pasture seeds, soils, and in agricultural machinery (Vibrans, 2011).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Medicinal use	Medicinal herb	Yes	Yes	Gargiullo et al. (2008)
Ornamental purposes		Yes	Yes	Flora of Taiwan Editorial Committee (2014)

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Land vehicles	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Vibrans (2011)
Machinery and equipment	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Vibrans (2011)
Soil, sand and gravel	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Vibrans (2011)
Wind	Seeds	Yes	Yes	Vibrans (2011)

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Economic Impact

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E. fosbergii is a weed with economic impacts mainly in agriculture, pasture and garden activities. This species is listed as a weed in crops including rice, cassava, coffee, and sugarcane (Echegoyen-Ramos et al., 1996, Murillo et al., 2006; Vibrans, 2011).

Environmental Impact

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E. fosbergii has the potential to negatively impact natural and seminatural habitats in coastal areas, forest edges and natural grasslands (Wagner et al., 1999; Kairo et al., 2003; Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia, 2004; Vibrans, 2011; Chacon and Saborio, 2012; PIER, 2014; Pruski, 2014).

Threatened Species

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Threatened Species	Conservation Status	Where Threatened	Mechanism	References	Notes
Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka)	NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species	Hawaii	Competition (unspecified)	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010)

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Fast growing

Impact outcomes

Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition (unspecified)
Pest and disease transmission
Rapid growth

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Uses

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E. fosbergii is occasionally cultivated as a garden ornamental (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014). In Central America (Costa Rica and Nicaragua) it is used medicinally to treat high blood pressure (Gargiullo et al., 2008).

Uses List

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Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

Propagation material
Seed trade

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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E. fosbergii can be vegetatively similar to Emilia sonchifolia and Emilia coccinea, but these species can be distinguished based on leaves and corolla features as described in the following key (Pruski, 2014):

E. sonchifolia: Proximal leaves lyrate-pinnatifid; involucres narrow-cylindrical, corollas included to only slightly exserted; corollas usually pink or lavender, lobes 0.5-0.8 mm; disk floret styles indistinctly appendiculate, appendages to 0.1 mm, no longer than broad, convex.
E. coccinea: Proximal leaves not lyrate-pinnatifid; involucres broad-cylindrical to hemispherical, corollas moderately to well-exserted; corollas lobes 1.1-2.2 mm; disk floret styles obviously appendiculate, appendages 0.2-0.3 mm, caudate. Leaf margins nearly subentire; involucres campanulate, about as long as broad, corollas well-exserted; corollas bright orange to red, lobes 1.6-2.2 mm.
E. fosbergii: Proximal leaves not lyrate-pinnatifid; involucres broad-cylindrical to hemispherical, corollas moderately to well-exserted. Leaf margins usually coarsely dentate; involucres broad-cylindrical, (1-) 2× as long as broad, corollas moderately exserted; corollas usually pale red or pinkish-red, lobes 1.1-1.6 mm.

References

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Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, D.C., USA: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 1192 pp. [Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 98.]

Alan E, Barrantes U, Soto A, Aguero R, 1995. Elementos para el Manejo de Malezas en Agroecosistemas Tropicales ([English title not available])., Costa Rica: Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica, 223 pp.

Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85:1-246.

Borges RAX, 2014. Emilia. (Emilia.) Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB16104

Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Brown SE, Been BO, McLaughlin WA, 2008. First report of the presence of the lethal yellowing group (16Sr IV) of phytoplasmas in the weeds Emilia fosbergii and Synedrella nodiflora in Jamaica. Plant Pathology, 57(4):770. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/ppa

Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica ([English title not available]). San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org

Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama.), Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 599 pp.

Davidse G, Sousa-Peña M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2014. Asteraceae. 5(2). In: Flora Mesoamericana [ed. by Davidse, G. \Sousa Sánchez, M. \Knapp, S. \Chiang Cabrera, F.]., Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.

Echegoyen -Ramos PE, Valverde-Mena BE, Garita-Cruz I, 1996. [English title not available]. (Acción conjunta del paraquat y el 2,4-D en malezas asociadas al café en Costa Rica.) Manejo Integrado de Plagas, 4:8-15.

Flann C, 2009. Global Compositae Checklist. http://compositae.landcareresearch.co.nz/Default.aspx

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Flora of Taiwan Editorial Committee, 2014. Taiwan Plant Names. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=101

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, Oliver RL, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:222.

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander SN, 2007. Checklist of the plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 584 pp.

Gargiullo M, Magnuson B, Kimball L, 2008. A field guide to plants of Costa Rica. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press, 542 pp.

Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Guerra MS, Nogueira MTM, 1990. The cytotaxonomy of Emilia spp. (Asteraceae: Senecioneae) occurring in Brazil. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 170:229-236.

Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela (New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela). Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela, 860 pp.

I3N-Argentina, 2013. Base de Datos sobre Especies Invasoras (Database of invasive species)., Argentina: Universidad Nacional del Sur. www.inbiar.org.ar

Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz RDC, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. Flora of Antioquia. (Flora de Antioquia.) Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, vol. 2. Listado de las Plantas Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia:939 pp.

Jørgensen PM, León-Yànez S, 1999. Catalogue of the vascular plants of Ecuador. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard, 75. i-viii, 1-1182.

Kairo M, Ali B, Cheesman O, Haysom K, Murphy S, 2003. Invasive species threats in the Caribbean region. Report to the Nature Conservancy. Curepe, Trinidad and Tobago: CAB International, 132 pp. http://www.issg.org/database/species/reference_files/Kairo%20et%20al,%202003.pdf

Mejía R, Ferman RL, Galdámez EL, 1994. Caracterización Botánica de Especies Consideradas Malezas en los Cultivos Anuales y Perennes de la Estación Experimental ([English title not available]). San Salvador, El Salvador: Universidad de El Salvador.

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

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US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. In: Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 19 pp.

USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

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Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press/Bishop Museum Press. [Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication.]

Whistler WA, 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of Western Polynesia. An annotated list of the weed species of Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Wallis and Futuna, along with the earliest dates of collection and the local names. Technical Paper, South Pacific Commission, No. 194:69 pp.

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Distribution References

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Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Silva M do C L da, Santos C D G, 2017. Distribution of Meloidogyne enterolobii in guava orchards in the state of Ceará, Brazil. Revista Caatinga. 30 (2), 335-342. https://periodicos.ufersa.edu.br/revistas/index.php/caatinga/article/view/4754/pdf

Thompson IR, 2006. A taxonomic treatment of tribe Senecioneae (Asteraceae) in Australia. In: Muelleria, 24 51-110.

USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2014. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Vergaças P S R, Ferreira A B M, Franco D A de S, Leite L G, Campos W N, Harakava R, Bueno Júnior C, 2018. Survey of Phaeomoniella chlamydospora in vineyard weeds. Summa Phytopathologica. 44 (3), 218-222. DOI:10.1590/0100-5405/180135

Villaseñor J L, Espinosa-Garcia F J, 2004. The alien flowering plants of Mexico. Diversity and Distributions. 10 (2), 113-123. DOI:10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00059.x

Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press/Bishop Museum Press. [Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication].

Whistler W A, 1988. Checklist of the weed flora of Western Polynesia. An annotated list of the weed species of Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Wallis and Futuna, along with the earliest dates of collection and the local names. In: Technical Paper, South Pacific Commission, 69 pp.

Whistler WA, Steele O, 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. In: Botanical survey of the Kwajalein Atoll Islands, 111 pp.

Zuloaga F O, Morrone O, Belgrano M J, 2008. Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur (Argentina, Sur de Brasil, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay). Volumen 1: Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae y Monocotyledoneae. [ed. by Zuloaga F O, Morrone O, Belgrano M J]. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press. xcvi + 983 pp.

Links to Websites

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Global Compositae Checklist	http://compositae.landcareresearch.co.nz/Default.aspx

Contributors

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06/03/14 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

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Emilia fosbergii (Florida tassel-flower)

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