Emilia fosbergii (Florida tassel-flower)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Emilia fosbergii Nicolson
Preferred Common Name
- Florida tassel-flower
Other Scientific Names
- Emilia javanica (Burm. f.) C.B. Rob.
- Emilia sagittata DC.
- Emilia sonchifolia var. rosea Bello
International Common Names
- English: Cupid's-shaving-brush; Flora's paintbrush; purple emilia; red sow thistle
- Spanish: clavelito; lamparita; pincel de amor; pincel de poeta; pincelillo
- Chinese: ying rong hua
Local Common Names
- Colombia: clavelillo
- Dominican Republic: pincelito
- Lesser Antilles: Cupid's paintbrush; rabbit meat; red tassel
- Puerto Rico: clavelito colorado; clavlitos del cafetal
- Venezuela: hierba socialista
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageE. fosbergii is a cosmopolitan annual herb included in the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It is fast-growing, with the capacity to grow as a weed and colonize disturbed areas, waste ground, gardens, abandoned farmland, coastal forests, forest edges, pastures, roadsides, rocky areas, and riverbanks (Wagner et al., 1999; Vibrans, 2011; Pruski 2014). It produces large amounts of wind-dispersed seeds (>5000 seeds per plant; Mejía et al., 1994) which is a feature facilitating the likelihood of spreading and colonizing new habitats. Currently, E. fosbergii is listed as invasive in Mexico, Central America, West Indies, and on several islands in the Pacific Ocean (see Distribution Table for details).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Emilia
- Species: Emilia fosbergii
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageAsteraceae is one of the most species-rich families of flowering plants. The family includes 1620 genera and about 23,600 species (Stevens, 2012). Species within the Asteraceae are very variable in their growth form and habitat, but may be recognized by their “capitulate” and involucrate inflorescences in which numerous small flowers open first on the outside and are infrequently subtended by bracts. The anthers in this family are usually fused and form a tube through which the style extends before the two stigmatic lobes separate and become recurved. The rather small, single-seeded fruits usually have a plumose “pappus” and are frequently dispersed by wind (Stevens, 2012).
The genus Emilia comprises approximately 100 species distributed mainly in tropical regions of the Old World (Pruski, 2014). E. fosbergii is a cosmopolitan species spread throughout the tropical and humid subtropical regions, with wide distribution in tropical and subtropical America (Pruski, 2014).
Description
Top of pageE. fosbergii is an annual, erect or ascending herb, branched, 20 to 50 cm (up to 100 cm) tall. Stems glabrous to sparsely pilose or sometimes prominently villous-pilose near the axils of the middle cauline leaves. Leaves alternate, broadly ovate to oblanceolate, often tapering to a prominently winged petiole and therefore appearing pandurate, the base sessile to auriculate, the margin weakly serrate to dentate or sometimes lobed, the teeth callose-tipped, overall 5-10 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, about 2 times longer than wide, the uppermost leaves reduced to linear serrate clasping bracts. Inflorescence of one to several headed, loose, corymbiform cymes arising terminally or laterally in the axils of the upper cauline leaves. Heads turbinate or sometimes weakly urceolate or becoming weakly campanulate in age, robust, 2-3 times longer than wide, the florets prominently exserted approximately 2 mm beyond the involucre; involucral bracts 8-13, linear, (7-) 9-12 mm long; receptacle flat to convex, the carpopodia forming prominent tubercles after achenes have been shed; florets 15-30, varying greatly in size with the robustness of the plant, the corollas pink to light purple or red but not orange. Achene reddish brown to light tan, columnar, approximately 5 mm long with a row of strigose-hirsute pubescence on each of the 5 prominent ribs; pappus of abundant, white, capillary hairs (Flora of Taiwan Editorial Committee, 2014; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014).
Distribution
Top of pageThe origin of E. fosbergii is uncertain, but most authors agree that it is native to the Old World (USDA-ARS, 2014). It has been suggested that it may have originated in Asia and Africa, but it is now widely distributed in warm regions of the world, principally throughout the New World (Wagner et al., 1999; Gargiullo et al., 2008; Flann, 2009; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014; Pruski, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Bonin Islands | ||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalised | |||
Europe |
|||||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | 1813 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Guana | ||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominica | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalised | |||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalised | |||
Panama | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalised. Canal, Chiriqui, Boquete, Cocle, Cerro Azul | |||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalised, very common | |||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | Widespread | ||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-California | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1997 | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Misiones, Iguazu, M. Belgano | |||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalised, lowlands | |||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Acre | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Amapa | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Amazonas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maranhao | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Para | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Paraiba | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Piaui | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rondonia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Roraima | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sergipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tocantins | Present | Introduced | |||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Guayas, Los Rios | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalised. Alto Parna, Amambay, Caaguazu, Canindeyu, Canindeyu, Central Cordillera, Guaira | |||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageE. fosbergii was probably introduced and established in the New World in the latter part of the nineteenth century, probably intially in the USA and the West Indies and subsequently from Mexico to northern South America (Smith 1991; Wagner et al., 1999; Borges 2014; Pruski 2014). It was apparently introduced into islands in the Pacific Ocean in the early part of the twentieth century (Smith, 1991).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of E. fosbergii is high. The species produces large numbers of small wind-dispersed seeds and has the potential to grow as a weed in ruderal areas, gardens, and pasture lands. Consequently, this species has the potential to spread much further than it has to date.
Habitat
Top of pageE. fosbergii is a common weed in open and disturbed areas, cultivated land, pastures, coastal forests, forest edges, along roadsides and riverbanks, and in rocky areas in moist and seasonally dry areas (Gargiullo et al., 2008; Vibrans, 2011; Graveson, 2012). In Hawaii, where this species is listed as invasive, it is common in low elevation, dry, urban and disturbed habitats (Wagner et al., 1999). It can also be cultivated as a garden ornamental (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageE. fosbergii has been listed as a weed in rice plantations in Colombia and coffee plantations in Costa Rica. It is also listed as a weed in cassava and sugarcane plantations in Central and South America (Echegoyen-Ramos et al., 1996, Murillo et al., 2006; Vibrans, 2011).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee) | Rubiaceae | Main | |
Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Main | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
Psidium guajava (guava) | Lithomyrtus | Unknown | |
Saccharum | Poaceae | Main | |
Vitis (grape) | Vitaceae | Unknown |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
E. fosbergii is a tetraploid species (Moraes and Guerra, 2010) with a chromosome number of 2n = 20 (Guerra and Nogueira, 1990).
Longevity, Phenology and Reproduction
E. fosbergii is a fast-growing annual herb (Flann, 2009; Pruski et al., 2014). It is wind-pollinated and under favourable environmental conditions (warm and humid) it produces flowers and seeds for many months (Vibrans, 2011). In Panama, it has been collected in flower from August to December (Correa et al., 2004).
Environmental Requirements
E. fosbergii grows as a weed, so it prefers areas with full sunlight and moderate to high water availability. This species prefers sandy-loam soils but can be found growing on a range of soils in wet to seasonally dry regions (Gargiullo et al., 2008; Vibrans, 2011).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Meloidogyne incognita | Parasite | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Pratylenchus | Parasite | Plants|Whole plant | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageE. fosbergii is reported as a host of the nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus spp. The whitefly species Bemisia tabaci, Aleurocanthus woglumi, Aleurotrachelus sp., Aleurothrixus sp., Aleuroplatus sp., and Trialeurodes have also been reported for this species (Alan et al., 1995). In Jamaica, the lethal yellowing (16Sr IV) group of phytoplasmas was recently reported affecting E. fosbergii (Brown et al., 2008).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageE. fosbergii spreads by seeds. Each plant has the potential to produce >5000 wind-dispersed seeds (Mejía et al., 1994). Seeds may be secondarily dispersed as a contaminant in crop seeds, pasture seeds, soils, and in agricultural machinery (Vibrans, 2011).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Medicinal use | Medicinal herb | Yes | Yes | Gargiullo et al. (2008) |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | Flora of Taiwan Editorial Committee (2014) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Land vehicles | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Vibrans (2011) |
Machinery and equipment | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Vibrans (2011) |
Soil, sand and gravel | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Vibrans (2011) |
Wind | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Vibrans (2011) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageE. fosbergii is a weed with economic impacts mainly in agriculture, pasture and garden activities. This species is listed as a weed in crops including rice, cassava, coffee, and sugarcane (Echegoyen-Ramos et al., 1996, Murillo et al., 2006; Vibrans, 2011).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageE. fosbergii has the potential to negatively impact natural and seminatural habitats in coastal areas, forest edges and natural grasslands (Wagner et al., 1999; Kairo et al., 2003; Villaseñor and Espinosa-Garcia, 2004; Vibrans, 2011; Chacon and Saborio, 2012; PIER, 2014; Pruski, 2014).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Fast growing
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition (unspecified)
- Pest and disease transmission
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Uses
Top of pageE. fosbergii is occasionally cultivated as a garden ornamental (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014; USDA-ARS, 2014). In Central America (Costa Rica and Nicaragua) it is used medicinally to treat high blood pressure (Gargiullo et al., 2008).
Uses List
Top of pageMedicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageE. fosbergii can be vegetatively similar to Emilia sonchifolia and Emilia coccinea, but these species can be distinguished based on leaves and corolla features as described in the following key (Pruski, 2014):
- E. sonchifolia: Proximal leaves lyrate-pinnatifid; involucres narrow-cylindrical, corollas included to only slightly exserted; corollas usually pink or lavender, lobes 0.5-0.8 mm; disk floret styles indistinctly appendiculate, appendages to 0.1 mm, no longer than broad, convex.
- E. coccinea: Proximal leaves not lyrate-pinnatifid; involucres broad-cylindrical to hemispherical, corollas moderately to well-exserted; corollas lobes 1.1-2.2 mm; disk floret styles obviously appendiculate, appendages 0.2-0.3 mm, caudate. Leaf margins nearly subentire; involucres campanulate, about as long as broad, corollas well-exserted; corollas bright orange to red, lobes 1.6-2.2 mm.
- E. fosbergii: Proximal leaves not lyrate-pinnatifid; involucres broad-cylindrical to hemispherical, corollas moderately to well-exserted. Leaf margins usually coarsely dentate; involucres broad-cylindrical, (1-) 2× as long as broad, corollas moderately exserted; corollas usually pale red or pinkish-red, lobes 1.1-1.6 mm.
References
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Alan E, Barrantes U, Soto A, Aguero R, 1995. Elementos para el Manejo de Malezas en Agroecosistemas Tropicales ([English title not available])., Costa Rica: Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica, 223 pp.
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Borges RAX, 2014. Emilia. (Emilia.) Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://reflora.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB16104
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica ([English title not available]). San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama.), Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 599 pp.
Davidse G, Sousa-Peña M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2014. Asteraceae. 5(2). In: Flora Mesoamericana [ed. by Davidse, G. \Sousa Sánchez, M. \Knapp, S. \Chiang Cabrera, F.]., Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Echegoyen -Ramos PE, Valverde-Mena BE, Garita-Cruz I, 1996. [English title not available]. (Acción conjunta del paraquat y el 2,4-D en malezas asociadas al café en Costa Rica.) Manejo Integrado de Plagas, 4:8-15.
Flann C, 2009. Global Compositae Checklist. http://compositae.landcareresearch.co.nz/Default.aspx
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Fosberg FR, Sachet MH, Oliver RL, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:222.
Gargiullo M, Magnuson B, Kimball L, 2008. A field guide to plants of Costa Rica. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press, 542 pp.
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com
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Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela (New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela). Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela, 860 pp.
I3N-Argentina, 2013. Base de Datos sobre Especies Invasoras (Database of invasive species)., Argentina: Universidad Nacional del Sur. www.inbiar.org.ar
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PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Pruski JF, 2014. Asteraceae. Flora Mesoamericana [ed. by Davidse, G. \Sousa Sánchez, M. \Knapp, S. \Chiang Cabrera, F.]., Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. http://www.tropicos.org/docs/meso/asteraceae.pdf
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
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Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press/Bishop Museum Press. [Bernice P. Bishop Museum special publication.]
Whistler WA, Steele O, 1999. Botanical survey of the United States of America Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) Islands. Botanical survey of the Kwajalein Atoll Islands. 111 pp.
Distribution References
Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85 1-246.
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.htm
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
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Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama. (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama)., Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 599 pp.
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Contributors
Top of page06/03/14 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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