Cryptostegia madagascariensis (Madagascar rubbervine)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Cryptostegia madagascariensis Bojer ex Decne.
Preferred Common Name
- Madagascar rubbervine
Other Scientific Names
- Cryptostegia glaberrima Hochr.
- Cryptostegia madagascariensis var. glaberrima (Hochr.) Marohasy & P.I. Forst
- Cryptostegia madagascariensis var. septentrionalis Marohasy & P.I. Forst.
International Common Names
- English: devil's claw vine; palay rubbervine; purple allamanda; rubber vine
- Spanish: vid de caucho
Local Common Names
- Brazil: unha do diabo
- El Salvador: vid de goma
- Mexico: vid de goma
- Puerto Rico: canario morado falso
- Saint Lucia: lèt makak; zong makak
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageC. madagascariensis is a fast-growing invasive woody vine. Plants can begin to reproduce after about 200 days and they can produce large amount of seeds which are rapidly dispersed by wind, floodwaters, or stuck to the fur of animals (Starr et al., 2003). Seeds can remain viable up to one year and studies have reported germination rates ranging from 90 to 95% (Starr et al., 2003; Vieira et al., 2004). C. madagascariensis has the ability to quickly spread along water courses, coastal forests, pastures, forest edges, and disturbed areas. The plant can form dense impenetrable thickets by climbing up trees and covering them, and may also displace and out-compete native vegetation.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Gentianales
- Family: Apocynaceae
- Genus: Cryptostegia
- Species: Cryptostegia madagascariensis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageC. madagascariensis is native to the north-western coast of Madagascar (USDA-ARS, 2012). It is closely related to C. grandiflora, the only other species in the genus. Currently, the genus Cryptostegia belongs to the family Apocynaceae, but previously was classified within Asclepiadaceae. Apocynaceae is a monophyletic family that includes 415 genera and about 4555 species of perennial herbs, shrubs, and vines distributed broadly within tropical and subtropical areas (Stevens, 2012). Hybrids of these two species with intermediate floral and vegetative morphology have been identified in Madagascar (ISSG, 2012).
Description
Top of pageC. madagascariensis is a twining woody vine or scandent shrub, 6-8 m in length, with abundant milky latex. Stems are cylindrical, glabrous, reddish brown, with few lenticels. Leaves are opposite; blades 4-10 × 2-4.7 cm, elliptical, oblong, or ovate, coriaceous, glabrous, the apex short-acuminate, obtuse, or rounded. The margins are entire; venation pinnate, with14-16 pairs of secondary veins; upper surface dull; lower surface pale, with obscure venation; petioles glabrous, 0.6-1.5 cm long; stipules minute, intrapetiolar. Flowers are arranged in pedunculate cymes; bracts foliaceous, lanceolate, approximately 5 mm long. Calyx green, campanulate, the sepals lanceolate, pubescent, 0.5-1.5 cm long; corolla 3-6 cm long, violet, the tube darker inside, the lobes abaxially whitish in the overlapping portion; corona with 5 simple lobes, approximately 1 cm long. Two follicles, divergent, brown when mature, 5.8-13 cm long, woody. Seeds are reddish brown, ovate-lanceolate, 3 mm long, with long, cream colored silky hairs (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005).
Distribution
Top of pageC. madagascariensis is native to the north-western coast of Madagascar (USDA-ARS, 2012), but is widely distributed in India, Kenya, Brazil, Hawaii, Australia and the West Indies. It is also reported as present/naturalized in Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia. Due to its large showy flowers, C. madagascariensis has been planted as an ornamental and it is still sold in the nursery and landscape trade. Thus, it is likely that this species has a wider geographical distribution than the official records suggest.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Madagascar | Present | Native | Endemic to Madagascar | ||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Asia |
|||||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Anegada | |||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | 1926 | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | 1946 | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Tabasco and Yucatán | ||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Escaped from cultivation | |||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | Coclé, Darién, Canal area | ||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | 1915 | Invasive | Vieques | ||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Common in Laborie, Micoud and Vieux Fort; risk in disturbed and burnt habitats; potential threat to xeric savanna | |||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas | |||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive Category II | |||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | 1987 | ||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Australian Weeds Committtee (2012) | |||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Australian Weeds Committtee (2012) | |||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Australian Weeds Committtee (2012) | |||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Cultivated | |||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Cultivated | |||
South America |
|||||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Maranhao | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Piaui | Present | ||||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Escaped from cultivation | ||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Escaped from cultivation. Amazonas, Bolivar, Aragua, Nueva Esparta, Lara |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of page
The closely related species Cryptostegia grandiflora and C. madagascariensis are very similar and were probably introduced together into tropical and subtropical countries, first as ornamentals and later planted for rubber production. Currently, C. madagascariensis is widely distributed in India, Kenya, Brazil, Hawaii, Australia and the West Indies and it has become invasive in Hawaii, Brazil, the West Indies (Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, St Lucia, Montserrat, Anguilla), and Australia.
In Australia, by 2002 this species was listed as a Class 3 invasive species under the Land Protection Act and the sale or supply of this species is prohibited and the removal from environmentally significant areas is required (Australian Weeds Committee, 2012). In Florida, it has been classified as a category II weed (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011). For the West Indies, C. madagascariensis was probably introduced as an ornamental in the nineteenth century and was collected by J.A. Stevenson in Puerto Rico 1915 and later in Cuba in 1926. Currently, this species is reported as an “invasive species” on the British Virgin Islands (since 2006), Anguilla (since 2008), Montserrat (since 2008), and St. Lucia (since 2009). In Puerto Rico and US Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas) C. madagascariensis is classified as an invasive species and is common in thickets and coastal forests (i.e., Guánica, Vieques, Fajardo and Mayaguez; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005). According to residents of the islands of St. John, an area ca. 2,000 m² that has been overgrown by this species is the result of one individual introduced about 70 years ago in that area (Acevedo, pers. comm.).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageC. madagascariensis is available to the public through internet sites (i.e., garden and landscape companies online) and few of them describe the invasive capacity of this species. C. madagascariensis also produces large number of seeds that are easily dispersed by wind and water with high germination rates. Thus, the probability of colonizing new areas remains high.
Habitat
Top of pageIn Madagascar (native range), C. madagascariensis can be found from Tulear in the south west to Diego Suarez in the extreme north, in coastal plains below 500 m altitude and with rainfall patterns ranging 400-2400 mm annually (McFadyen and Harvey, 1991). Outside its native range, C. madagascariensis can be found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It occurs along roadsides, coastal and riparian forests in lowland areas as well as disturbed forests, especially as a climber in the upper layers of trees from where it invades natural adjacent forests.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageC. madagascariensis is not a weed of agricultural crops. However, in Australia, both C. grandiflora and C. madagascariensis can smother and out-compete both wild and pasture grasses, being a serious problem in pasture lands. These species are an expensive problem for ranchers in Australia who must control these plants which are toxic to cattle and horses (Australian Weeds Committee, 2012).
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Hybrids formed between C. grandiflora and C. madagascariensis have been reported for Madagascar (Marohasy and Forster, 1991). These hybrids can be distinguished by intermediate floral morphology.
Reproductive Biology
C. madagascariensis is a self-compatible species, but spontaneous self-pollination does not occur due to morphological characteristics (i.e., protandry). Flowers are insect-pollinated, visited mainly by bees. Once pollinated, a fruit with two divaricate follicles results per flower. Each fruit averages around 96.5 seeds. Seeds can remain viable for up to one year and germination experiments under controlled conditions using seeds collected from natural-pollinated fruits show germination rates ranging from 93 to 95% (Vieira et al., 2004).
Physiology and Phenology
C. madagascariensis flowers in Madagascar in November and December. In Australia, flowering occurs from December to February (Australian Weeds Committee, 2012). In Brazil, flowering occurs in November and December (Vieira et al., 2004), and in Puerto Rico, flowers occurred in August and from December to February (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005). Flowers open during the day and last about 24 hours. Fruit take four to five months to reach the maximum size, and around 200 days for opening, when the ripe fruit split to allow seed dispersal (Vieira et al., 2004).
Longevity
This species is a long-lived perennial woody vine that can last for decades.
Associations
Within its native range in Madagascar, C. madagascariensis inhabits deciduous thickets dominated by Didiereaceae (an endemic family) and arborescent Euphorbias (ISSG, 2012).
Environmental Requirements
C. madagascariensis grows in areas below 500-600 m altitude where annual rainfall varies from 400 to 2400 mm (Marohasy and Forster, 1991). The species is able to extend its range into drier areas with 400 mm or less of annual rainfall. It is also tolerant of a wide variety of soil types. Seed germination requires high humidity and temperatures around 30°C (ISSG, 2012).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | 5 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 15 | 35 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 6 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | |
Mean annual rainfall | 400 | 2400 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
- shallow
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Euclasta gigantalis | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | to genus | Australia | ||
Glomerella cingulata | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | to genus | Brazil | ||
Maravalia cryptostegiae | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | to genus | Australia | ||
Nephele densoi | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | to genus | Australia | ||
Pseudocercospora cryptostegiae-madagascariensis | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | to genus | Brazil | ||
Schizomyia cryptostegiae | Parasite | Plants|Leaves; Plants|Stems | to genus | Australia |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageSeeds are mainly dispersed by wind and water, aided by the silky hairs. Seeds can float for long periods enabling them to be carried along watercourses. In addition, seeds can tolerate prolonged periods of immersion in saline water, facilitating oceanic dispersal (Starr et al., 2003).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nursery trade | This species is still sold in the nursery and landscape trade | Yes | Yes | PIER (2012) |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | PIER (2012) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Seeds | Yes | Yes | PIER (2012) |
Livestock | Seeds | Yes | Yes | PIER (2012) |
Seeds sold online | Yes | Yes | PIER (2012) | |
Soil, sand and gravel | Yes | Yes | PIER (2012) | |
Water | Yes | Yes | Starr et al. (2003) | |
Wind | Seeds | Yes | Yes | PIER (2012) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Negative |
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Human health | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageC. madagascariensis can smother and out-compete both wild and pasture grasses, being a serious problem in pasture lands in Australia. In addition, it is an expensive problem for ranchers in Australia who must control these plants which are toxic to cattle and horses. This species is toxic to both humans and grazing animals. Lethal effects on cattle have been reported when they have eaten C. madagascariensis and C. grandiflora in the dry season when proper forage is scarce. C. madagascariensis is considered a noxious weed in Australia, Hawaii, and Florida.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageC. madagascariensis can form dense monospecific thickets that can out-compete native vegetation (ISSG, 2012). In Australia, this species is invading national parks threatening native and endemic biodiversity (Australian Weeds Committee, 2012). It may also impact forest communities by preventing trees from getting sunlight, because it is able to overtop trees and then shade forests. In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands C. madagascariensis can invade coastal dry forests by climbing over trees at the periphery of the forest and slowly spreading further into the interior forest.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Host damage
- Infrastructure damage
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
- Negatively impacts forestry
- Negatively impacts human health
- Negatively impacts animal health
- Negatively impacts livelihoods
- Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Damages animal/plant products
- Causes allergic responses
- Hybridization
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
Top of pageC. madagascariensis has been used for the production of rubber in both India and Madagascar. In Madagascar, the species is also used to produce fibres used for making ropes, fish nets and fishing line. C. madagascariensis is a poisonous species and has been used in committing suicide for religious purposes. It is also used in traditional medicine in Madagascar (ISSG, 2012).
Uses List
Top of pageGeneral
- Botanical garden/zoo
Materials
- Rubber/latex
Ornamental
- Potted plant
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageC. madagascariensis is similar to C. grandiflora, but they differ in flower and fruit morphology. C. madagascariensis has flowers with simple corona lobes and follicles (dry unilocular fruit) 5.8 to 13 cm long. On the other hand, C. grandiflora has flowers with a corona with bifid lobes and follicles from 10 to 15.4 cm long (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical control
Small plants can be controlled by hand pulling or digging out the plant. Fruits should be bagged and disposed of properly. Contact with the milky latex should be avoided (Starr et al., 2003).
Biological Control
In Australia, biological control has been used in both the species C. grandiflora and C. madagascariensis. The rubber vine rust (Maravalia cryptostegiae) has been used for biological control over a wide area in Queensland. Yellow spores form under leaves eventually causing defoliation, reducing seed production, causing dieback of stems, and killing young seedlings. In addition the larvae of the moth Euclasta whalleyi have been used in combination with the rust. This larvae feed on leaves. These agents do not kill established plants, but do cause abnormal defoliation and lead to reduced seed production. Their success and potential damage depends on their abundance (Starr et al., 2003). In Brazil, two fungal pathogens Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata) and Pseudocercospora cryptostegiae-madagascariensis have been targeted as potential biological control agents (Silva et al., 2008).
Chemical Control
A variety of chemicals listed in Australia to control Cryptostegia species includes: triclopyr butoxyethyl ester, dimethylamine salt of dicamba (3,6-dichloro-o-anisic acid), 4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid, and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyloxy- acetic acid. These herbicides are effective when they are applied directly to roots, leaves, and cut stumps (Starr et al., 2003).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, 2005. Flora of St. John, US Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 78:1-581
Australian Weeds Committtee, 2013. Weeds of Australia. Canberra, Australia: Australian Weeds Committtee. http://www.weeds.org.au/
Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85:1-246
Connor RA, 2008. Anguilla Invasive Species Strategy (draft). http://www.gov.ai/documents/Anguilla%20Invasive%20Species%20Strategy%202008%20(2).pdf
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama.), Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 599 pp
Daltry JC, 2009. Biodiversity Asessment of Saint Lucia's Forest, with Management Recommendations., Finland: FCG & Fauna & Flora, 80 pp. http://www.bananatrustslu.com/index.php?link=doccentre&project=sfa2003
Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae. Flora Mesoamericana, 4:1-533
Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011. Florida EPPC's 2011 Invasive Plant Species List. http://www.fleppc.org/list/11list.html
Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA, et al. , 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. New catalogue of the vascular plants of Venezuela (Nuevo Catalogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela). Caracas, Venezuela: Fundacion Instituto Botanico de Venezuela
ISSG (Invasive Species Specialist Group), 2012. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Auckland, New Zealand: Invasive Species Specialist Group and IUCN Species Survival Commission. http://www.issg.org/
Krauss U, Seier M, Stewart J, 2008. Mitigating the Threats of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean. Report on Project Development Grant (PPG) Stakeholder Meeting, GFL-2328-2740-4995. Piarco, Trinidad and Tobago: GEF, UNEP, CABI Caribbean and Latin America, 43 pp
Madagascar Catalogue, 2012. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar. Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Research and Conservation Program. http://www.efloras.org/madagascar
Marohasy J, Forster PI, 1991. A taxonomic revision of Cryptostegia R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae: Periplocoideae). Australian Systematic Botany, 4:571-577
McFadyen RE, Harvey GJ, 1991. Rubber vine, Cryptostegia grandiflora, A Major Threat to Natural Ecosystems in Northern Australia. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Exotic Pest Plants, November 2-4, 1988, Miami, Florida [ed. by Center, T. D. \Doren, R. F. \Hofstetter, R. L. \Myers, R. L. \Whiteaker, L.]. Washington, DC, USA: United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service
McGowan A, Broderick AC, Clubbe C, Gore S, Godley BJ, Hamilton M, Lettsome B, Smith-Abbott J, Woodfield NK, 2006. Darwin Initiative Action Plan for the Coastal Biodiversity of Anegada, British Virgin Islands. 13 pp. http://www.seaturtle.org/mtrg/projects/anegada/Anegada%20BAP.pdf
PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Smithsonian Institution, 2012. Cryptostegia grandiflora. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/datasearch/WI/resultRemote.cfm?myPlantName=Cryptostegia grandiflora
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service
Starr F, Kim S, Lloyd L, 2003. Cryptostegia spp. Rubber vine, Asclepiadaceae. Maui, Hawai'i, USA: United States Geological Survey--Biological Resources Division, Haleakala Field Station. http://www.hear.org/Pier/pdf/pohreports/cryptostegia_spp.pdf
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Young RP, 2008. A biodiversity assessment of the Centre Hills, Montserrat. Durrell Conservation Monograph No. 1. Jersey: Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. http://www.durrell.org/library/Document/Durrell_Cons_Monograph_1_Full_Report.pdf
Distribution References
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Undated. Personal Communication.,
Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85 1-246.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Connor RA, 2008. Anguilla Invasive Species Strategy (draft)., http://www.gov.ai/documents/Anguilla%20Invasive%20Species%20Strategy%202008%20(2).pdf
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama. (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama)., Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 599 pp.
Daltry JC, 2009. Biodiversity Asessment of Saint Lucia's Forest, with Management Recommendations., Finland: FCG & Fauna & Flora. 80 pp. http://www.bananatrustslu.com/index.php?link=doccentre&project=sfa2003
Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae. In: Flora Mesoamericana, 4 1-533.
Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011. Florida EPPC's 2011 Invasive Plant Species List., http://www.fleppc.org/list/11list.html
Forzza RC, Leitman PM, Costa AF, Carvalho Jr AA et al, 2012. List of species of the Flora of Brazil. (Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2012/
Graveson R, 2012. The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean). In: The Plants of Saint Lucia (in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean), http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. New catalogue of the vascular plants of Venezuela. (Nuevo Catalogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela)., Caracas, Venezuela: Fundacion Instituto Botanico de Venezuela.
Krauss U, Seier M, Stewart J, 2008. Mitigating the Threats of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean. In: Report on Project Development Grant (PPG) Stakeholder Meeting, Piarco, Trinidad and Tobago: GEF, UNEP, CABI Caribbean and Latin America. 43 pp.
Madagascar Catalogue, 2012. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar., Antananarivo, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden, Madagascar Research and Conservation Program. http://www.efloras.org/madagascar
McFadyen RE, Harvey GJ, 1991. Rubber vine, Cryptostegia grandiflora, A Major Threat to Natural Ecosystems in Northern Australia. [Proceedings of the Symposium on Exotic Pest Plants, November 2-4, 1988, Miami, Florida], [ed. by Center TD, Doren RF, Hofstetter RL, Myers RL, Whiteaker L]. Washington, DC, USA: United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service.
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PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Smithsonian Institution, 2012. Cryptostegia grandiflora., Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/datasearch/WI/resultRemote.cfm?myPlantName=Cryptostegia grandiflora
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Young RP, 2008. A biodiversity assessment of the Centre Hills, Montserrat. In: Durrell Conservation Monograph No. 1, Jersey, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust. http://www.durrell.org/library/Document/Durrell_Cons_Monograph_1_Full_Report.pdf
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Australian Weeds Committee | http://www.weeds.org.au/ | |
Flora of the West Indies | http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/ | |
Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council | http://www.fleppc.org | |
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) | http://www.hear.org/Pier/index.html |
Contributors
Top of page11/01/13 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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