Cenchrus biflorus
(Indian sandbur)

Pictures

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Cenchrus biflorus Roxb.

Preferred Common Name

• Indian sandbur

Other Scientific Names

• Cenchrus annularis Andersson
• Cenchrus barbatus Schumach.
• Cenchrus catharticus Delile
• Cenchrus leptacanthus A.Camus
• Cenchrus niloticus Fig. & De Not.
• Cenchrus perinvolucratus Stapf & C.E.Hubb.
• Cenchrus rajasthanensis Kanodia & P.C.Nanda

International Common Names

• English: birdwood grass

Local Common Names

• : wezzeg
• Australia: gallon’s curse
• Brazil: capim-carrapicho
• France: cram-cram
• India: anjan grass; bhurat
• Namibia: kandjata; kangamba; rukwangali; thimbukushu
• Sudan: abu sha'ar; haskanit

Summary of Invasiveness

C. biflorus is an annual grass native throughout tropical Africa into Pakistan and India. It has been introduced outside of its native range into southern Africa, North America and Australia. C. biflorus is used as a forage and famine crop but more recently it has been recognised as an invasive species. The retrorsely barbed bristles are readily spread in animal fur and can seriously reduce the value of animal hides, while the barbs can damage the mouths of grazing animals. In addition to this, it is possible for this species to dominate disturbed areas and suppress the growth of native biodiversity. C. biflorus is reported as an agricultural weed in a number of countries including Niger, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Senegal.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Cyperales
•                         Family: Poaceae
•                             Genus: Cenchrus
•                                 Species: Cenchrus biflorus

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

C. biflorus is one of around 25-35 species in the genus and belongs to the Poaceae family (Peerzada et al., 2016). It was named in 1820 and although a few synonyms have been applied and used since then, especially C. barbatus, there are none now in current use.

The genus name Cenchrus is derived from the Greek word ‘Kenchros’ which means millet and the name biflorus means two flowers (Peerzada et al., 2016).

Description

C. biflorus is a loosely tufted, annual grass, with ascending stems (culms) up to 1 m tall. Leaves alternate, simple and entire; ligule a line of hairs; blade linear, flat, 2–25(–35) cm × 2–7(–10) mm, apex filiform. Inflorescence a spike-like panicle 2–15 cm × 9–12 mm, with 1–3 spikelets enclosed by an involucre of prickly bristles; rachis angular, sinuous; involucre ovoid, 4–11 mm long with numerous spines, inner spines erect, fused at base, retrorsely hairy on the pungent, recurving apex, outer spines shorter, spreading. Spikelet lanceolate 3.5–6 mm long, acute, consisting of two glumes and usually two florets; glumes shorter than spikelet; lower floret male or sterile, its lemma as long as spikelet, membranous, upper floret bisexual, its lemma as long as spikelet, thinly leathery; stamens three, ovary superior, glabrous, with two hairy stigmas. Fruit a dorsally compressed caryopsis (grain), 2–2.5 mm × 1.5–2 mm (PROTA, 2015).

Plant Type

Distribution

C. biflorus is native throughout tropical Africa, extending eastwards through Arabia and Iran to Pakistan and India. It has however been introduced outside of its native range for example into southern Africa, North America and Australia.

There is a record of C. biflorus in France and Portugal (GBIF, 2015) however these were based on Elymus caput-medusae  that was treated as a synonym of C. biflorus and is therefore incorrect as it is a synonym for Taeniatherum caput-medusae.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

There are two papers describing C. biflorus as newly recorded in Cape Verde, the earlier presumably being the more reliable (Rustan et al., 1983/1984). Elsewhere some of the earliest records are for 1965 in South Africa (it was not included in Chippindall, 1955) and 1976 in Botswana (GBIF, 2015). Bond et al. (2002) used molecular methods to try and establish the origin of the invasive populations in the Kalahari and found they were not closely related to those in the north of the country, adjacent to the Namibia border but must have originated from further afield. There was a surprising match with material from Burkina Faso but this seemed an unlikely source.

C. biflorus was introduced into North America and Australia for use as a forage species, due to its rapid growth and high nutritive value (Peerzada et al., 2016). It was reported as present in Hawaii however, it is no longer present (Akamine, 1944).

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

C. biflorus is a prolific producer of seeds which are readily dispersed into new areas by attaching to animals, humans and machinery. This spread occurs over a local scale. It was however introduced into new countries as a forage and famine crop. However, the invasive potential of this species has now been realised and introductions are less likely.

Habitat

C. biflorus is mostly found in dense clumps in semi-arid and arid regions usually on dry sandy soils on old farmland and waste places and in cultivated, overgrazed or otherwise disturbed areas. It grows in areas with low rainfall, below 600 mm per annum, up to 1300 m altitude (Peerzada et al., 2016; Useful Tropical Plants, 2016).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

C. biflorus occurs as a weed in a wide range of crops, including Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) (Munde et al., 2012), Hibiscus sabdariffa (roselle) (El-Naim and Ahmed, 2010) and species of Sesamum indicum (sesame) (Chandawat, 2004).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Growth Stages

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number of C. biflorus has been variously reported as n = 15, 16, 17, 18 and 24 (PROTA, 2015; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015), with n = 17 being the most frequently observed for this and related species. Bond et al. (2002) found populations in Botswana to be genetically highly variable. Abbasi and Malik (1970) report that C. biflorus may hybridise with C. pennisetiformis (both species having n = 17) but it is not clear whether this is common in nature. The hybrids resemble C. setigerus [C. setiger] but have highly sterile pollen and show poor seed set. It is closely related to Pennisetum, which differs in non-spiny inner involucral bristles free to the base.

Reproductive Biology

C. biflorus reproduces by producing a larger number of seeds (thousands of seeds per square metre) (Peerzada et al., 2016). The optimum temperature for germination of C. biflorus is 35°C (Brink and Belay, 2006) and germination is then generally rapid (Elberse and Breman, 1990). Germination is stimulated by nitroglycerine 0.1 to 100 mM, by isosorbide mono-nitrate at 10 and 100 mM, while potassium nitrate is only stimulatory at ‘high concentrations’ (Shuakat and Siddiqui, 2005).

Physiology and Phenology

Along with other species of the genus, C. biflorus has C₄ physiology (Sankhla et al., 1975). Development is rapid and flowering may occur within 3-4 weeks (PROTA, 2015). It has a short growing season and in its native range, flowering occurs from July to September (Peerzada et al., 2016).

Longevity

C. biflorus is a short-lived annual, often living only for 2-4 months, though it may persist longer under shade (Akpo and Grouzis, 1993). Longevity of the seeds is not known.

Associations

C. biflorus is associated with the leguminous gum arabic tree (Acacia senegal) in the Sahel of northern Africa (FAO, 2015).

In Niger it has been shown to be associated with endomycorrhyzae, including Glomus aggregatum [Rhizophagus aggregatus] and G. mosseae [Funneliformis mosseae] (Haougui et al., 2013) and also with G. versiforme [Diversispora versiformis] (Putten et al., 2007).

Nutrition

Seeds of C. biflorus contain approximately 3% fat and 21% protein although it has not been fully developed for cultivation (Parazadar et al., 2016).

Environmental Requirements

C. biflorus requires high temperatures for germination and full sunshine for optimum growth. It tends to benefit from trampling and over-grazing, e.g. in Senegal (Valenza, 1981). It is often found on dry, well drained, sandy soils up to 1,300 m in altitude with a pH of 5.5-7 (Peerzada et al., 2016; Useful Tropical Plants, 2016). It grows in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 250-650 mm (Useful Tropical Plants, 2016) but does not grow in seasonally waterlogged areas. It can tolerate high temperatures and droughts and is found in areas without frosts (Peerzada et al., 2016).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• infertile
• shallow

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Vector Transmission

Seeds of C. biflorus are predominantly spread by attachment to grazing animals and perhaps birds.

Accidental Introduction

Accidental introduction may readily occur through attachment to clothing.

Intentional Introduction

C. biflorus is regarded as a nutritious grass for grazing and may be deliberately introduced to areas unsuitable for less drought-tolerant species.

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Economic Impact

C. biflorus is a dominant agricultural weed. It can be aggressive in its growth and when grown with other grasses, may replace them (Useful Tropical Plants, 2016). C. biflorus occurs as a weed in a wide range of crops, including Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet) (Munde et al., 2012), and Sesamum indicum (sesame) (Chandawat, 2004). It is also a problem in Hibiscus sabdarfifa in Sudan (El-Naim and Ahmed, 2010) and of a range of crops in Niger (de Fabrègues, 1992). It is also a major weed of irrigated wheat (species of Triticum) in Nigeria (Okafor, 1987), of groundnuts in Senegal (Nicou, 1961) and in a range of crops in Saudi Arabia (Chaudhary et al., 1981). The costs associated with control are however are unknown.

Environmental Impact

C. biflorus may become dominant under dry, overgrazed conditions. It is abundant in Sudan, the Sahel and southern Sahara, where it may form massive stands which alter biodiversity (FAO, 2015; Flora Zambesiaca, 2015; PROTA, 2015).

In Rajasthan, India, C. biflorus is seen as an important food plant for the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) (Sinha and Chandra 1987). In Senegal it is an important food plant for the Senegalese locust (Oedaleus senegalensis) (Chandra, 1982/1983) and in Mali for the Africa migratory locust (Locusta migratoria migratorioides) (Ohabuike, 1979).

Social Impact

It is possible for the inflorescence of C. biflorus to injure humans and grazing animals (Useful Tropical Plants, 2016).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Invasive in its native range
• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Fast growing
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Reduced native biodiversity

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Rapid growth
• Produces spines, thorns or burrs

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally

Uses

Economic Value

C. biflorus is considered a valuable forage grass in the Sahel; it is mainly browsed in the juvenile stage and when the grains have fallen off. It can be cut several times during the rainy season and made into hay or silage. The spiny involucres are sufficiently softened by ensiling to make consumption of the whole plant possible. C. biflorus persists until the end of the dry season and thus is important as a reliable source of fodder. Also in India the plant is used as a fodder and it is sown against desertification and in northern Australia as forage (PROTA, 2015).

Social Benefit

The grain of C. biflorus is edible and highly nutritious, being high in protein (210 g/kg) (Salih and Nour, 1992). It is considered a famine food in the Sahel and is collected as a wild cereal, e.g. by the Tuareg people. The leaves are eaten during famine in the Thar Desert in India. The grains are pounded and eaten raw, made into porridge, or mixed and cooked with other foods. The grain is also made into a drink. In Sudan it is made into bread and in Mauritania the ground grains are made into cakes. The grain is also a famine food in India, where it is eaten raw or used, mixed with pearl millet, to make bread. In normal years, it is mixed with sugar and ‘ghee’ and eaten as a children’s food (PROTA, 2015). It is used as a famine food in Rajasthan, India (Kumar, 2013).

The root is also an ingredient of traditional aphrodisiac prescriptions (PROTA, 2015).

Environmental Services

C. biflorus provides food for a number of locusts in India, Senegal and Mali (Chandra, 1982/1983; Ohabuike, 1979; Sinha and Diwakar, 2003). It is also a food source for migratory birds (Peerzada et al., 2016).

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed
• Forage

Human food and beverage

• Seeds

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

C. biflorus is distinguished from most other species in the genus (e.g. C. ciliaris) and from Pennisetum spp., by having retrorsely barbed spines.

In Africa, C. biflorus might be confused with C. incertus [C. spinifex] but the latter has the inner bristles fused and forming a deep cup, rather than a flattened disc and the outer bristles flattened (Flora Zambesiaca, 2015).

In the Americas and India, C. biflorus is close genetically to C. echinatus (Chandra and Dubey, 2008) but is distinguished by having relatively few inner bristles, fused and forming a deep cup and very few, or no, outer bristles.

Prevention and Control

Prevention

SPS Measures

C. biflorus is a restricted weed in New South Wales, Australia (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2016).

Control

Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures

In Botswana, the growth of C. biflorus is suppressed by Lablab purpureus (Wandera and Abdullahi, 2008).

Physical/Mechanical Control

As an annual grass, C. biflorus is readily controlled by hoeing and other mechanical means.

Chemical Control

In a pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) stand in Gujarat, India, C. biflorus was controlled by using atrazine (Munde et al., 2012). It has also been controlled by alachlor and pendimethalin in sesame (Sesamum sp.) (Chandawat et al., 2004), by fluchloralin in mothbean (Vigna aconitifolia) (Shekhawat et al., 2004) and by trifluralin, alachlor and chloramben in mung bean (V. radiata) and Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Daulay and Singh, 1982). Haloxyfop has proved selective control in a L. purpureus cover-crop. Glyphosate has also been used to kill C. biflorus, however, it also kills native vegetation allowing for re-infestation from soil seedbank.

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

More information on the biology and ecology of C. biflorus is required to give a better understanding of this species. For example, studies could be conducted looking at seed germination and viability, etc.

References

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Akamine EK, 1944. Germination of Hawaiian range grass seeds. HAWAII Agricultural Experiment Station. Tech. Bull, 2 pp.

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Wandera FP; Abdullahi A, 2008. Control of noxious weed Cenchrus biflorus - effect of lablab as a cover crop. In: Multifunctional grasslands in a changing world, Volume II: XXI International Grassland Congress and VIII International Rangeland Congress, Hohhot, China, 29 June-5 July 2008. Guangzhou, China: Guangdong People's Publishing House, 827.

Links to Websites

Contributors

25/03/2015 Original text by:

Chris Parker, consultant, Bristol, UK

Distribution Maps