Breynia disticha
(snowbush)

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Breynia disticha J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.

Preferred Common Name

• snowbush

Other Scientific Names

• Breynia axillaris Spreng.
• Breynia nivosa (W.Bull) Small
• Melanthesa neocaledonica Baill.
• Phyllanthus nivosus W.Bull
• Phyllanthus nivosus W.G.Sm.

International Common Names

• English: calico plant; dwarf snowbush; dwarf snowflake bonsai; foliage-flower; Hawaiian-leaf flower; ice plant; leaf flower; leaf-flower of the Pacific Islands; old man’s beard; snowbush breynia; snow-on-the-mountain; summer snow; sweet pea bush
• Spanish: breynia; arbol de nieve; breina
• French: la neige
• Portuguese: filanto
• German: Schneebush

Local Common Names

• Bahamas: snowbush
• Bolivia: arbolito de navidad
• British Indian Ocean Territory: snow bush
• Cook Islands: kāpaiē; kāvaiē; maemae
• Cuba: copo de nieve; escarchada; nevada; nieve
• Dominica: snow-bush
• Dominican Republic: carnaval; nevado
• Ecuador: arbolito de navidada
• Finland: hiutalepensas
• Haiti: neige
• Japan: takasago-koban-no-li
• Micronesia/Pohnpei: katuk
• Nauru: eomonon
• New Caledonia: drem
• Puerto Rico: carnaval
• Sweden: snöflingebuske
• Tonga: pepe
• USA: Hawaiian snow bush; rosy snow bush; snow bush
• Zimbabwe: snow bush

Summary of Invasiveness

B. disticha is considered as an invasive shrub to small tree in USA (Florida and Hawaii), Guinea, The British Indian Ocean Territory, Niue and Cuba (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; Swearingen and Bargeron, 2016; PIER, 2017). The species invades areas close to where cultivated by root suckers (PIER, 2017). In Cuba it is considered as a transformer species, without further details (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012). It is regarded as an invasive species in Florida-USA by Swearingen and Bargeron (2016), although it is not in the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council’s list of invasive plant species (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2017). At Dave’s Garden (2017) it is considered by the community as an invasive species in southern Florida, having the ability to spread quickly from roots in damp soils. It is not considered as an invasive species for Florida by Gilman (2014). In Hawaii-USA it has escaped from cultivation and is spreading vegetatively around abandoned homesites in Hawaii (PIER, 2017).

In Guinea, the green-form of B. disticha is considered as an invasive species along the roadsides, in secondary thickets over many hectares, at the edge of a mangrove and in woodlands (Cheek et al., 2013). As its been found in areas with no evidence of former cultivation, apparently spreading through seeds. It has been collected in fruit at one of the sites.

No details about its invasiveness are given for the British Ocean Territory and Niue.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Euphorbiales
•                         Family: Euphorbiaceae
•                             Genus: Breynia
•                                 Species: Breynia disticha

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The genus Breynia, named after Jacob Breyne (Quattrocchi, 1999), includes about 35 species from the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands (Kawakita and Kato, 2004). The genus is conserved against the one published by Linnaeus, which is recognised as a synonym of Capparis (St. John, 1957).

Breynia and other related genera were formerly included in the Euphorbiaceae, but molecular, embryological and morphological data justified the split of the family into Euphorbiaceae s.s., Phyllanthaceae and Picrodendraceae (The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2003). Molecular studies concluded that Breynia is nested within the genus Phyllanthus, along with Glochidion, Reverchonia and Sauropus (Wagner and Lorence, 2011; Welzen et al., 2014). Wagner and Laurence (2011) recommended the change of the embedded genera into Phyllanthus, proposing new combinations for the Glochidion of New Zealand. Welzen et al. (2014) advocated against these changes reasoning that an enlarged ‘giant’ Phyllanthus of about 1,300 species would be difficult to work with and needed a considerable amount of new combinations. This report follows The Plant List (2017), which at present recognises Breynia as a distinct genus from Phyllanthus.

Description

The following description is from PIER (2017):

Monoecious shrubs or small trees, glabrous throughout, the stipules small; leaves along main branches spirally arranged and reduced, distichous along ultimate branchlets, short-petiolate, simple, the blades entire; inflorescences axillary, the lower axils bearing fascicles of 3-many male flowers, the higher axils bearing solitary female flowers, the flowers lacking petals and disk; male flowers with the calyx fleshy, obovoid-turbinate, shortly 6-lobed, the stamens 3, the filaments connate into a column bearing 2-locular anthers apically, these not apiculate; female flowers with the calyx campanulate to cupuliform, 6-lobed or "toothed, persistent and sometimes accrescent, the ovary 3-locular, the walls thickened distally, each locule with 2 ovules, the stigmas small, subulate-dentiform, incurved; fruit a capsule dehiscing into 2-seeded cocci, the seeds with a somewhat fleshy testa, ventrally invaginated.

Plant Type

Distribution

B. disticha is widely cultivated as an ornamental in gardens and for hedges in tropical and subtropical areas (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017; PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017). It is also occasionally used as a potted plant in temperate areas (Dave’s Garden, 2017). The species is reported for Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America, Europe and Oceania (See Distribution Table for details; (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; DAISIE, 2017; Dave’s Garden, 2017; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017; NMNH, 2017; NYBG, 2017; PIER, 2017; Plants of the Eastern Caribbean, 2017; PROTA, 2017; ZipcodeZoo, 2017). Its native range is wrongly reported to include the Lesser Antilles (Plants of the Eastern Caribbean, 2017), or ‘China and the southeast of Asia, through Malesia to Australia, New Caledonia and the New Hebrides’ (PIER, 2017). All other references cite it as only native to New Caledonia and Vanuatu and as cultivated and/or naturalised elsewhere.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

B. disticha is a shrub to small tree native from New Caledonia and Vanuatu. It has been introduced elsewhere, as an ornamental and a hedge plant, because of its attractive leaf colouration (Dave’s Garden, 2017; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017; PROTA, 2017). There are reports of the species being present in Cuba since 1904, and at other islands if the Caribbean since the early 1900’s (NMNH, 2017; NYBG, 2017). It was collected at Florida-USA near Miami in 1904 (Small, 1910). Gilman (2014) reported that B. disticha could be planted successfully in the southern parts of California, Florida and Arizona in USA.

In some countries, it is naturalised and spreading aggressively and profusely near areas where cultivated by root suckers (PIER, 2017; Wildlife of Hawaii, 2017). Cheek et al. (2013) consider that there is a high risk that the species will spread by bird dispersion from Guinea to Sierra Leone and from there into all tropical Africa.

Introductions

Risk of Introduction

B. disticha has a high risk of introduction into tropical and subtropical humid areas, where there is a high possibility that it could spread outside its cultivation. Potential limiting factors to the distribution of the species are its intolerance to dry conditions and to temperature extremes (Dave’s Garden, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). Although the variegated form rarely produces seeds, the green form does produce seeds that are bird dispersed, which creates a high risk of its introduction in tropical Africa (Cheek et al., 2013). As the species is not tolerant to low temperatures, the risk of introduction into temperate areas is low.

Habitat

B. disticha is reported as growing in sclerophyllous forests, low bushy vegetation, pinelands, edges of hammocks and as uncommon in savannas (Small, 1910; Nicholson and Warner, 1953; Morat et al., 2001; PIER, 2017). It is also reported to occur in holes of calcareous rocks, wet forest, mountains degraded areas, forest edges, rocky plateaus, lowlands, river islands and hills near the sea (PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017). In Guinea, it is found at roadsides, in secondary thickets over many hectares, at the edge of a mangrove and in woodlands (Cheek et al., 2013). It is also cultivated in urban areas (Dave’s Garden, 2017; PROTA, 2017).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number reported for B. disticha is 2n=52 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017). Most of plants used as ornamentals are cultivars with variegated leaves in various colours that range from green to white, pink and red (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017).

Reproductive Biology

The principal means of reproduction is vegetatively by cuttings and root suckers (Pérez Montesino et al., 2009-2010; PIER, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). Fruits are rarely seen in the variegated cultivated forms, but regularly found in the all-green form (Cheek et al., 2013). The species of Breynia, including B. disticha, are reported to have an obligate pollination mutualism by Epicephala moths (Kawakita and Kato, 2004, 2009; Zhang et al., 2012).

Physiology and Phenology

B. disticha is reported as flowering all year round (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It has a fast growth rate (Learn2Grow, 2017).

Environmental Requirements

B disticha grows in all soil types, including serpentine, but prefers well-drained light sandy, loamy fertile soils (Morat et al., 2001; Ingram et al., 2003; PROTA; 2017). The soil pH can be acidic, neutral or alkaline, but will grow best with a pH between 6.1 and 7.8 (PROTA, 2017). The plants will drop their leaves if the temperature drops below 4.4°C, not tolerating temperatures below -6.6°C (Dave’s Garden, 2017; Learn2Grow, 2017). It grows best in partial shade to full sun (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). The soil needs to be moist all the time. The species does not tolerate droughts and will drop the leaves if the soil gets dry (Dave’s Garden, 2017). B. disticha is reported as not salt tolerant by Gilman (2014), but at the same time being resistant to salty sea air and as growing near mangroves (Cheek et al., 2013; Dave’s Garden, 2017).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Special soil tolerances

• saline

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

B. disticha is not susceptible to major pests and diseases; caterpillars and mites being reported as sometimes affecting the species (Gilman, 2014). Insect species reported for the species are Epicephala spp. and Melanchroia chephise (Caldwell, 2007; Zhang et al., 2012).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Natural Dispersal

B. disticha can spread quickly in damp soils, mainly from root suckers (Dave’s Garden, 2017).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

B. disticha is reported as being dispersed by birds in Guinea by Cheek et al. (2013).

Intentional Introduction

The species is being used as an ornamental worldwide (Dave’s Garden, 2017).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Environmental Impact

Impact on Habitats

B. disticha is regarded in Cuba as a transformer species, causing changes in the habitats, without further details (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012). It is growing near an intact forest in Guinea, which contains rare and endangered species (Cheek et al., 2013).

Impact on Biodiversity

B. disticha is spreading profusely near areas where cultivated at Hawaii-USA. Although no further details are given, it is highly likely the species is impacting the habitats and the native vegetation (Wildlife of Hawaii, 2017). The species’ ability to colonise and persist in secondary forests is a concern in Africa, as it could threaten native species by outcompeting and displacing them (Cheek et al., 2013). It is found only 200 m from an intact forest in Guinea, that contains rare species and the endangered Tarenna hutchinsonii.

Threatened Species

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Tolerant of shade
• Fast growing
• Has high reproductive potential
• Reproduces asexually

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Threat to/ loss of endangered species
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Rapid growth

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Economic Value

B. disticha, especially in its variegated form, is used extensively as an ornamental and a hedge plant (Useful Tropical Plants; 2017).

Social Benefit

B. disticha recommended uses are as an ornamental, in hedges, as potted plants for indoor areas, as a border, and cascading down walls (Gilman, 2014). It is not suitable for temperate areas, where it needs to be placed indoors during the winter (Dave’s Garden, 2017). It is also used as a bonsai (PROTA, 2017).

It is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria, headaches, toothaches and tooth infections (Okokon et al., 2015, 2017). Extracts of the species have shown blood glucose lowering activities (Ezekwesili and Ogbunugafor, 2015). The species also have reported antioxidant, antimicrobial, analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities (Okokon et al., 2015; Sulayman and Tougeer, 2015).

Environmental Services

Species of Breynia, including B. disticha, have pollination mutualistic relationships with Epicephala species. The female moths have evolved specialised proboscides to collect and transport pollen between flowers. They lay eggs in the flowers and the larvae feed on some of the developing seeds (Kawakita and Kato, 2009). B. disticha is also reported as a caterpillar food plant, but no further details are provided (Flora and Fauna Web, 2017).

Uses List

Environmental

• Amenity
• Boundary, barrier or support

General

• Botanical garden/zoo

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Potted plant

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Physical/Mechanical Control

B. disticha is not easy to control, the plants need to be dug out with the roots intact and then burned (Cheek et al., 2013).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

According to Cheek et al. (2013) further work is needed to map and study the range, biology and persistence of the species in Africa. Also needed is information on the reproduction and pollination mechanisms outside the native range.

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., Strong, M. T., 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies, Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Caldwell, D. L., 2007. Caterpillar outbreaks: defoliation by the royal poinciana caterpillar (Melipotis acontioides) and the snowbush caterpillar (Melanchroia chephise) in Naples, Florida. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 120, 360-362. http://journals.fcla.edu/fshs/article/view/86254

Cheek, M., Challen, G., Merklinger, F., Molmou, D., 2013. Breynia disticha, a new invasive alien for tropical Africa. Aliens: The Invasive Species Bulletin, (No.33), 32-34. http://www.issg.org/pdf/aliens_newsletters/A33.pdf

DAISIE, 2017. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. In: Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe . http://www.europe-aliens.org/

D'Arcy, W. G., 1967. Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola, Virgin Islands. Rhodora, 69(780), 385-450.

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Encyclopedia of Life, 2017. Encyclopedia of Life. In: Encyclopedia of Life . http://www.eol.org

Ezekwesili, C. N., Ogbunugafor, H. A., 2015. Blood glucose lowering activity of five Nigerian medicinal plants in alloxan-induced diabetic Wistar albino rats. Animal Research International, 12(2), 2150-2158. http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ari/article/view/130559

Flora and Fauna Web, 2017. Flora and Fauna Web. https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/

Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of North America North of Mexico. In: Flora of North America North of Mexico St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1

Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2017. Florida EPPC's 2017 list of invasive plant species. In: Florida EPPC's 2017 list of invasive plant species Tifton, Georgia, USA: Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health.https://www.fleppc.org/list/list.htm

Forbes, S. , Sandham, J. , Meredith, S., Barker, W. R. B., Lowe, A., Ainsley, P., Jusaitis, M., Pitman, S., Christensen, T., Andrews, T., Fidler, N., Winter, P., Hatcher, R., Sawtell, C., 2010. Catalogue of Plants 2010: Adelaide, Mount Lofty and Wittunga Botanic Gardens. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 2(Supplement), 1-297.

Fosberg, F. R., Oliver, R. L., 1991. C.L. Ledermann’s collection of flowering plants from the Caroline Islands. Willdenowia, 20(1/2), 257-314.

Foxcroft, C. L., Richardson, D. M., Wilson, J. R. U., 2008. Ornamental plants as Invasive Aliens: Problems and Solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management, 41, 32-51.

Gillespie, L. J., 1993. Euphorbiaceae of the Guianas: annotated species checklist and key to the genera. Brittonia, 45(1), 56-94. doi: 10.2307/2806862

Gilman, E. F., 2014. Breynia disticha Fact Sheet FPS-73. Florida, USA: University of Florida, Cooperative Extension Service, IFAS.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu

Ingram, D. L., Midcap, J. T., Barrick, W. E., 2003. Selected shrubs for Central Florida. (CIR499) . Florida, USA: University of Florida, IFAS Extension.http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/

Kawakita, A., Kato, M., 2004. Obligate pollination mutualism in Breynia (Phyllanthaceae): further documentation of pollination mutualism involving Epicephala moths (Gracillariidae). American Journal of Botany, 91, 1319-1325 .

Kawakita, A., Kato, M., 2009. Repeated independent evolution of obligate pollination mutualism in the Phyllantheae-Epicephala association. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Biological Sciences, (No.1656), 417-426. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2008.1226

Learn2Grow, 2017. Breynia disticha. http://www.learn2grow.com/plants/breynia-disticha-f-nivosa-roseo-picta/

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.http://www.tropicos.org/

Morat, P., Jaffré, T., Veillon, J. M., 2001. The flora of New Caledonia's calcareous substrates. Adansonia, 23(1), 109-127.

Murillo, A. J. , 2004. (Las Euphorbiaceae de Colombia). Biota Colombiana, 5(2), 183-200.

Neuba, D. F. R., Malan, D. F., Koné, M., Kouadio, Y. L., 2014. Preliminary inventory of invasive plants in Côte d'Ivoire. (Inventaire préliminaire des plantes envahissantes de la Côte d'Ivoire). Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences (JAPS), 22(2), 3439-3445. http://www.m.elewa.org/JAPS/2014/22.2/3.pdf

Nicholson, A. J., Warner, D. W., 1953. The rodents of New Caledonia. Journal of Mammal, 34(2), 168-179.

NMNH, 2017. National Museum of Natural History. http://naturalhistory.si.edu/

NYBG, 2017. New York Botanical Garden database. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/vh/

Okokon, J. E., Davis, K., Azare, B. A., 2015. Antimalarial activities of Breynia nivosa. Journal of Herbal Drugs, 5(4), 168-172.

Okokon, J. E., Okokon, P. J. , Sahal, D., 2017. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of some medicinal plants from Nigeria. International Journal of Herbal Medicine, 5(5), 102-109.

Oviedo Prieto, R., Herrera Oliver, P., Caluff, M. G., et al., 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue No. 1), 22-96.

Parker, J. I., Parsons, B., 2012. New plant records from the Big Island for 2010-2011. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 113, 65-74.

Pérez Montesino, L., Fuentes Fiallo, V. R., González Torres, L. R., 2009-2010. (Condiciones de cultivo, técnicas de propagación y distribución de las especies cultivadas con fines ornamentales en el Municipio Boyeros, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba). Revista del Jardín Botánico Nacional, 31, 187-201.

PIER, 2017. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. In: Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii.http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Plants of the Eastern Caribbean, 2017. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies.http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/

PROTA, 2017. PROTA4U web database. In: PROTA4U web database Wageningen and Nairobi, Netherlands\Kenya: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa.https://www.prota4u.org/database/

Quattrocchi, U., 1999. CRC world dictionary of plant names: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology, Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press.728 pp. https://www.crcpress.com/CRC-World-Dictionary-of-Plant-Names-Common-Names-Scientific-Names-Eponyms/Quattrocchi/p/book/9780849326738

Shaltout, K. H., Ali, H. I., Mobarak, A. A., Baraka, D. M., Aly, H. A., 2016. Variations in floristic composition of wild and cultivated species associated with Moringa oleifera Lam. in Egypt. Taeckholmia, 36, 136-157.

Small, J. K., 1910. Additions to the flora of Peninsular Florida. II. Naturalized species. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 37(10), 513-518.

St. John, H. , 1957. Proposed amendments to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Taxon, 6(7), 197-199.

Steinmann, V. W., 2002. Diversity and endemism in the family Euphorbiaceae in Mexico. (Diversidad y endemismo de la familia Euphorbiaceae en México). Acta Botanica Mexicana, (No.61), 61-93.

Sulayman, A., Touqeer, S., 2015. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of Breynia disticha and Vernonia elaeagnifolia. Journal of Applied Pharmacy, 7(3), 178-182.

Swearingen, J., Bargeron, C., 2016. Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States. In: Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States . Tifton, Georgia, USA: University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health.http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/

The Plant List, 2017. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1 . London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://www.theplantlist.org

USA, The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2003. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 141(4), 399-436. doi: 10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x

Useful Tropical Plants, 2017. Useful tropical plants database. In: Useful tropical plants database : K Fern.http://tropical.theferns.info/

Wagner, W., Lorence, D., 2011. A nomenclator of Pacific oceanic island Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae), including Glochidion. PhytoKeys, (No.4), 67-94. http://www.pensoft.net/journals/phytokeys/article/1581/abstract/a-nomenclator-of-pacific-oceanic-island-phyllanthus-phyllanthaceae-including-glochidion doi: 10.3897/phytokeys.4.1581

Welzen, P. C. van, Pruesapan, K., Telford, I. R. H., Esser, H. J., Bruhl, J. J., 2014. Phylogenetic reconstruction prompts taxonomic changes in Sauropus, Synostemon and Breynia (Phyllanthaceae tribe Phyllantheae). Blumea, 59(2), 77-94. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/nhn/blumea

Whitefoord, C. , 1989. Recent plant collections from Dominica. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 70(1), 143-152.

Wildlife of Hawaii, 2017. Wildlife of Hawaii. Breynia disticha - snowbush. https://wildlifeofhawaii.com/flowers/1283/breynia-disticha-snowbush/

Zhang Jing, Wang ShuXia, Li HouHun, Hu BingBing, Yang XiaoFei, Wang ZhiBo, 2012. Diffuse coevolution between two Epicephala species (Gracillariidae) and two Breynia species (Phyllanthaceae). PLoS ONE, 7(7), e41657. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0041657 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041657

ZipcodeZoo, 2017. Breynia disticha. http://zipcodezoo.com/index.php/Breynia_disticha

Distribution References

Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong M T, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Cheek M, Challen G, Merklinger F, Molmou D, 2013. Breynia disticha, a new invasive alien for tropical Africa. Aliens: The Invasive Species Bulletin. 32-34. http://www.issg.org/pdf/aliens_newsletters/A33.pdf

DAISIE, 2017. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. In: Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org/

Encyclopedia of Life, 2017. Encyclopedia of Life. In: Encyclopedia of Life. http://www.eol.org

Forbes S, Sandham J, Meredith S, Barker W R B, Lowe A, Ainsley P, Jusaitis M, Pitman S, Christensen T, Andrews T, Fidler N, Winter P, Hatcher R, Sawtell C, 2010. Catalogue of Plants 2010: Adelaide, Mount Lofty and Wittunga Botanic Gardens. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens. 2 (Supplement), 1-297.

Fosberg F R, Oliver R L, 1991. C.L. Ledermann’s collection of flowering plants from the Caroline Islands. Willdenowia. 20 (1/2), 257-314.

Foxcroft C L, Richardson D M, Wilson J R U, 2008. Ornamental plants as Invasive Aliens: Problems and Solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management. 32-51.

Gillespie L J, 1993. Euphorbiaceae of the Guianas: annotated species checklist and key to the genera. Brittonia. 45 (1), 56-94. DOI:10.2307/2806862

Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/

Murillo A J, 2004. (Las Euphorbiaceae de Colombia). Biota Colombiana. 5 (2), 183-200.

Neuba D F R, Malan D F, Koné M, Kouadio Y L, 2014. Preliminary inventory of invasive plants in Côte d'Ivoire. (Inventaire préliminaire des plantes envahissantes de la Côte d'Ivoire.). Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences (JAPS). 22 (2), 3439-3445. http://www.m.elewa.org/JAPS/2014/22.2/3.pdf

NMNH, 2017. National Museum of Natural History. http://naturalhistory.si.edu/

NYBG, 2017. New York Botanical Garden database. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/vh/

Okokon J E, Okokon P J, Sahal D, 2017. In vitro antiplasmodial activity of some medicinal plants from Nigeria. International Journal of Herbal Medicine. 5 (5), 102-109.

Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff M G, et al, 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba. 6 (Special Issue No. 1), 22-96.

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Links to Websites

Contributors

07/01/2018 Original text by:

Jeanine Vélez-Gavilán, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez

Distribution Maps