Moorochloa eruciformis (sweet signal grass)

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Moorochloa eruciformis (Sm.) Veldkamp

Preferred Common Name

sweet signal grass

Other Scientific Names

Brachiaria cruciformis Griseb.
Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb.
Brachiaria isachne (Roth ex Roem. & Schult.) Stapf
Echinochloa eruciformis (Sm.) Koch
Echinochloa eruciformis (Sm.) Rchb.
Milium alternans Bubani
Panicum caucasicum Trin.
Panicum eruciforme Sm.
Panicum isachne Roth
Panicum pubinode Hochst. ex A.Rich.
Panicum wightii Nees
Urochloa eruciformis (Sm.) C. Nelson & Fern. Casas

International Common Names

English: signal grass; summer grass; sweet summer grass

Local Common Names

China: bi xing cao
Cuba: brachiaria
France: herbe carapatte
India: antu garike hullu; chimpigyan hullu; chinwari; domakalu gaddi; guhria; khariu; loidan suput; sarpot; sarput; seprut; sheput; shimpi; shimpigyan hullu; sipi; tiliya
Italy: giavone sottile
Mauritius: mehenki
Mexico: brizanta
Somalia: kulekule
South Africa: kgalane; kgolane; khalane; litjiesinjaalgras; litjiesrysgras; soetgras; soetlitjiesrysgras; umfisane; umkraut armgras
Spain: pota de gall eruciforme
Sudan: um sileika

Summary of Invasiveness

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Moorochlora eruciformis is an annual herb, fodder crop and common agricultural weed, native to Africa, Asia and the Mediterranean; it has also been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. Crop seed contamination is a possible pathway for dispersal of this species. It is reported as invasive in Cuba, Spain and Australia as well as islands in Oceania. Despite this, there is limited information available about the economic and environmental impacts of this species or its dispersal potential.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Monocotyledonae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Brachiaria
Species: Moorochloa eruciformis

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Since the original publication of Panicum eruciforme Sm. in 1808, the species has been transferred to several genera: Brachiaria by Reichenbach in 1833, Echinochloa by Koch in 1848, Urochloa by Hardy and Fernández Casas in 1998 and most recently to Moorochloa by Veldkamp in 2004. The adaxial spikelet orientation in Brachiaria has been considered a weak morphological character for separation between Brachiaria and Urochloa (Torres González and Morton, 2005). On the other hand, Veldkamp (2004) used upper lemma to discriminate between Urochloa and Moorochloa, the new genus for several annual species previously in the genus Brachiaria, including B. eruciformis. Molecular phylogeny using plastid ndhF sequences and combined analysis with morphological traits for the tribe Paniceae, revealed that Moorochloa is well supported and distinct from the clade that includes Urochloa. The analysis also revealed that Brachiaria should be regarded as a synonym of Urochloa (Morrone et al., 2012). Further work supports the recognition of Moorochloa (Soreng et al., 2015).

Description

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M. eruciformis is an annual terrestrial herb growing up to 45 cm tall and forming dense clusters of 10-60 cm long reclining and slender stems, with softly hairy culms rooting at the lower nodes. Stem internodes are hollow.

The following description is from Stone (1970):

Blades slightly hairy, flat, usually less than 7 cm long and only up to 4.5 mm wide. Panicle 5-7 cm long with several appressed to ascending racemes up to 2.3 cm long; rachis pubescent; spikelets about 2.5 mm long, slightly hairy; first glume tiny (0.3 mm long), nerveless.

The following description is from India Biodiversity Portal (2016):

Erect herbs. Leaves lanceolate, 1.5-5 by 0.3-0.5 cm, pilose, margin scabrid, apex acuminate, sheath 2-4 cm long. Racemes terminal, cylindric, 7-9 cm long, branches triquetrous, winged, scabrid. Spikelet ellipsoid, secund-imbricate, densely pubescent, shortly stipitate; glumes unequal, membranous, lower glume a minute scale, upper glume as long as spikelet, 5-nerved, lower lemma 3-nerved, upper lemma crustaceous, smooth, 3-nerved; stamens 3. Caryopsis ovoid.

Plant Type

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Annual
Grass / sedge
Seed propagated

Distribution

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M. eruciformis is the most widely distributed species of the genus Moorochloa. It is native to Africa, the Mediterranean Region and much of Asia. It has also been introduced to the Americas and Oceania and is probably absent only from the coldest areas of the Northern Hemisphere. In Spain it is recorded as native according to Kumar (2011), however it is also listed as a weed with ‘incipient invasive behaviour’ in Spain (Sanz-Elorza et al., 2001). It is considered invasive in Cuba, Spain, Australia, Fiji, Guam and New Caledonia (Sanz-Elorza et al., 2001; Randall, 2007; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2016).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Dec 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Angola	Present	Native			African Plant Database (2016)
Botswana	Present	Native			Setshogo (2005) CABI (Undated)
Egypt	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Eswatini	Present	Native			Quattrocchi (2006)
Ethiopia	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Kenya	Present	Native			Quattrocchi (2006)
Lesotho	Present	Native			Kobisi (2005)
Madagascar	Present	Native			African Plant Database (2016) Missouri Botanical Garden (2016)
Malawi	Present	Native			Clayton et al. (2016)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced			Holm et al. (1979)
Morocco	Present	Native			African Plant Database (2016) Tanji and Taleb (1997) Kumar (2011)
Mozambique	Present	Native			Balsinhas (1983)
Namibia	Present	Native			Quattrocchi (2006)
Nigeria	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Somalia	Present	Native			African Plant Database (2016)
South Africa	Present	Native			Kumar (2011) Quattrocchi (2006)
South Sudan	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Sudan	Present	Native			Quattrocchi (2006) Elkhawad et al. (2015)
Tanzania	Present	Native			Quattrocchi (2006)
Uganda	Present	Native			Quattrocchi (2006)
Zambia	Present	Native			Bingham et al. (2016)
Zimbabwe	Present	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Hyde et al. (2016b)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native			Podlech (2012)
Bangladesh	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Bhutan	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Cambodia	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
China	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Fujian	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Guizhou	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
-Yunnan	Present	Introduced			Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016)
India	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Assam	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Bihar	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Goa	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Gujarat	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Karnataka	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Kerala	Present	Native			Kumar (2011) Chandran (1998)
-Madhya Pradesh	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Maharashtra	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Odisha	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Rajasthan	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Tamil Nadu	Present	Native			Kumar (2011) Kabeer and Nair (2009)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-West Bengal	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Indonesia	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated a)
-Java	Present	Introduced			Veldkamp (2004) Veldkamp (1996)
-Lesser Sunda Islands	Present	Introduced			Veldkamp (1996)
Israel	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Japan	Present	Introduced			Mito and Uesugi (2004)
Jordan	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Laos	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Lebanon	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Malaysia	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present	Native			Veldkamp (1996)
Myanmar	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Nepal	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Oman	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: e-flora of Sultanate of Oman (2016)
Pakistan	Present	Native			Afridi et al. (2015) Kumar (2011)	Most abundant weed in sugarcane fields in Takht Bhai Mardan
Palestine	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Philippines	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Native			Alsherif et al. (2012)	Considered for forage in western Saudi Arabia
Singapore	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Sri Lanka	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Syria	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Thailand	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Turkey	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Vietnam	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Yemen	Present	Native			Brown and Mies (2012)	Socotra Island
Europe
Belgium	Present	Introduced	1824		Seebens et al. (2017)	As: Moorochloa eruciformis
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Bulgaria	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Croatia	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Cyprus	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
France	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Greece	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Ireland	Present	Introduced			Stace (2010)
Italy	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Montenegro	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
North Macedonia	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Russia	Present	Native			CABI (Undated a)
-Southern Russia	Present	Native			Veldkamp (2004)
Serbia	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Slovenia	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
Spain	Present				Sanz-Elorza et al. (2001) Kumar (2011)
-Balearic Islands	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Sanz-Elorza et al. (2001)	Incipient invasive behaviour
United Kingdom	Present	Introduced			Stace (2010)
-Channel Islands	Present	Introduced			Stace (2010)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Barbados	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Cuba	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) Oviedo Prieto et al. (2012)
Guadeloupe	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Mexico	Present	Native			Zuloaga et al. (2008)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced			Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012) CABI (Undated)
United States	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated a)
-District of Columbia	Present	Introduced			Shetler and Orli (2002)	Escape
-Georgia	Present	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Tarknishvili (2016)
-Maryland	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2016)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2016)
-Missouri	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2016)
-Texas	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2016) Fox and Hatch (1996)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2016)
-Washington	Present	Introduced			USDA-NRCS (2016)
Oceania
Australia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Randall (2007) Seebens et al. (2017)	Weed of agriculture
-Lord Howe Island	Present	Introduced			Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (2016)
-New South Wales	Present	Introduced			Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (2016)
-Queensland	Present	Introduced			Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (2016)
-Western Australia	Present	Introduced			Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria (2016)
Fiji	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016) Smith (1979)
Guam	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016) Stone (1970)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	PIER (2016) Gargominy et al. (1996)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Introduced			Veldkamp (2004) Veldkamp (1996)
Timor-Leste	Present	Native			Kumar (2011)
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced			Troncoso and Bacigalupo (1982)	Entre Ríos province first record

History of Introduction and Spread

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M. eruciformis was first introduced to New Caledonia in 1931 for use as a forage crop (Gargominy et al., 1996). It was first recorded in Morocco in 1980, possibly as a result of contaminated crop seed (Tanji and Taleb, 1997). Details of introductions to other countries are not known.

Introductions

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Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reason	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
New Caledonia		1913	Forage (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Gargominy et al. (1996)	First introduction
Morocco		1980	Seed trade (pathway cause)		No	No	Tanji and Taleb (1997)	First introduction

Habitat

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M. eruciformis grows as a weed on agricultural land (Holzner and Numata, 1982; Kumar, 2011). It can also be found in damp areas, along roadsides, ditches and wastelands (Kumar, 2011), Ellnbroek (1987) and Muhammad et al. (2012) report that it occurs in forests and wetlands.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Industrial / intensive livestock production systems	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Secondary/tolerated habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Principal habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Principal habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Principal habitat	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Principal habitat	Natural

Hosts/Species Affected

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It is a common weed species in cultivated fields, particularly associated with maize, sugarcane and coffee crops (Holzner and Numata, 1982; Blanca et al., 2009; Afridi et al., 2015).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Main
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

There is limited information available about the genetics of M. eruciformis. It is a diploid species, 2n = 18 (Basappa, 1987).

Longevity

Most of the literature describes M. eruciformis as an annual species. However, Amjad et al. (2015) describe it as a perennial species growing in Pir Nasoora National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Associations

M. eruciformis is an important component of Pinus roxburghii communities in the forest of Kotli hills, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan (Muhammad et al., 2012). These forests are subject to disturbance due mainly to soil erosion, deforestation and over-grazing. Out of 13 plant communities studied, M. eruciformis was found to be dominant in one of these and an associated species in two others. Similar associations have been described in wetland communities in Zambia, Africa (Ellnbroek, 1987; Muhammad et al., 2012).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Tolerated	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Tolerated	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Tolerated	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Tolerated	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
BS - Steppe climate	Preferred	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation
BW - Desert climate	Preferred	< 430mm annual precipitation
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Preferred	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer	Tolerated	Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers)
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter	Tolerated	Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters)
Df - Continental climate, wet all year	Tolerated	Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year)

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
45	32

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	4	42

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Dry season duration	4	7	number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
Mean annual rainfall	90	4000	mm; lower/upper limits

Soil Tolerances

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Soil reaction

acid
alkaline

Soil texture

heavy

Special soil tolerances

infertile

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal

Dispersal of M. eruciformis occurs primarily by seed.

Accidental Introduction

Crop seed contamination has been suggested as one of the most common dispersal pathways of M. eruciformis, spreading it to agricultural fields in other countries (Afridi et al., 2015).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Disturbance			Yes	Blanca et al. (2009)
Escape from confinement or garden escape			Yes	Blanca et al. (2009)
Forage			Yes	Blanca et al. (2009)
Seed trade	Crop seed contamination	Yes		Afridi et al. (2015)

Environmental Impact

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Although M. eruciformis is an exotic component of the flora throughout the tropics and in some areas outside of the tropics, no details have been published on the ecological consequences of its introduction.

Impact: Biodiversity

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M. eruciformis is recorded as an agricultural weed (Randall, 2012) and is recorded as invasive in Cuba, Spain, Australia, Fiji, Guam and New Caledonia (Sanz-Elorza et al., 2001; Randall, 2007; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2016). However, no specific impacts on biodiversity have been reported.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture

Uses

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M. eruciformis is an important fodder species (Miles et al., 1996; Amjad et al., 2015).

Uses List

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Animal feed, fodder, forage

Fodder/animal feed
Forage

Environmental

Erosion control or dune stabilization

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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The genus Moorochloa is principally characterized by an ovate or oblong spikelet with an early deciduous upper floret, dorsiventral inflorescence arranged in one-sided racemes, with lower glume adjacent to the rachis. This differs from species in the closely related genus Urochloa, which now includes former Brachiaria species, as they have radiate or bilateral inflorescences, spikelets with the upper floret transversely rugose and are not early deciduous.

M. eruciformis has much smaller (1.7-2.7 mm) hairy spikelets compared to that of Brachiaria platyphylla (3.5-4.5 mm) and it also has 3-14 racemes compared to 2-6 in B. platyphylla. M. eruciformis has two rows of hairy spikelets whereas Echinochloa colona has clusters of 2-4 sessile spikelets.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

M. eruciformis is 95% susceptible to glyphosate in concentrations as low as 0.5 L ha^-1, as tested in Australia. However, some glyphosate resistance in M. eruciformis has been documented (Preston, 2018).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

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There is limited information available regarding the biology of M. eruciformis. Despite being recorded as invasive in a number of countries, there is also very limited information about the risk of introduction and impacts of this species.

References

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Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. In: Smithsonian Contributions to Botany , 98. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

African Plant Database, 2016. African Plant Database. Pretoria, South Africa: Conservatoire et jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute.http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/

Afridi SG, Sultan S, Butt ZA, Ahmad H, 2015. Ecological prevalence of the weed species growing in maize and sugarcane fields of district Mardan, Pakistan. Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, 7(5), 1-7.

Alsherif, E. A., Ayesh, A. M., Allogmani, A. S., Rawi, S. M., 2012. Exploration of wild plants wealth with economic importance tolerant to difficult conditions in Khulais Governorate, Saudi Arabia. Scientific Research and Essays, 7(45), 3903-3913. http://www.academicjournals.org/SRE/PDF/pdf2012/19Nov/Alsherif%20et%20al.pdf

Amjad, M. S., Muhammad Arshad, Rahmatullah Qureshi, 2015. Ethnobotanical inventory and folk uses of indigenous plants from Pir Nasoora National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 5(3), 234-241. http://www.apjtb.com doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(15)30011-3

Balsinhas, A. A., 1983. The weeds of abandoned cotton fields in Mozambique. In: Bothalia , 14(3/4) . 971-975.

Basappa GP, Muniyamma M, Chinnappa CC, 1987. An investigation of chromosome numbers in the genus Brachiaria (Poaceae: Paniceae) in relation to morphology and taxonomy. Canadian Journal of Botany, 65(11), 2297-2309.

Bingham MG, Willemen A, Wursten BT, Ballings, P, Hyde MA, 2016. Flora of Zambia: Home page. http://www.zambiaflora.com

Blanca G, Cabezudo B, Cueto M, Ferna´ndez Lo´pez C, Morales Torres C, 2009. Seville, Spain: Consejeri´a de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andaluci´a.427 pp.

Brown G, Mies BA, 2012. The Netherlands: Springer.382 pp.

Chandran M, 1998. Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E. Sm) Griseb. A new record for Kerala. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 95(3), 543-544.

Clayton WD, Vorontsova MS, Harman KT, Williamson H, 2016. GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens.http://www.kew.org/data/grasses-db.html

Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2016. Australia's Virtual Herbarium. Australia: Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria.http://www.chah.gov.au

e-Flora of Sultanate of Oman, 2016. http://omanflora.myspecies.info/en

Elkhawad M, Abdalla A, Osman A, 2015. Weed distribution and abundance in irrigated fields of White Nile State. International Journal of Environment, 4(4), 45-61.

Ellnbroek GA, 1987. The Netherlands: Springer.272 pp.

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Fox WE, Hatch SL, 1996. Brachiaria eruciformis and Urochloa brizantha (Poaceae: Paniceae) new to Texas. Sida, 17, 287-288.

Gargominy O, Bouchet P, Pascal M, Jaffre T, Tourneur J, 1996. Conséquences des introductions d'espèces animales et végétales sur la biodiversité en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Revue d’Ecologie (La Terre et la Vie), 51, 375-401.

Holm, L., Pancho, J. V., Herberger, J. P., Plucknett, D. L., 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds, New York, Chichester (), Brisbane, Toronto, UK: John Wiley and Sons.xlix + 391 pp.

Holzner, W., Numata, M., 1982. Biology and ecology of weeds, The Hague, Netherlands: Dr. W. Junk.461pp.

Hyde MA, Wursten BT, Ballings P, Coates Palgrave M, 2016a. Flora of Botswana: Home page. https://www.botswanaflora.com/index.php

Hyde MA, Wursten BT, Ballings P, Coates Palgrave M, 2016b. Flora of Zimbabwe: Home page. http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw

India Biodiversity Portal, 2016. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

Kabeer KA, Nair VJ, 2009. Flora of Tamil Nadu - Grasses. Kolkatta, India: Botanical Survey of India.

Kobisi K, 2005. Preliminary checklist of the plants of Lesotho. Southern African Botanical Diversity Network Report No. 34. Pretoria and Roma, South Africa: SABONET.88 pp.

Kumar B, 2011. Brachiaria eruciformis. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 . e.T164167A5761578. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T164167A5761578.en

Miles JM, Maass BL, do Valle CB, 1996. Colombia: International Center for Tropical Agriculture.288 pp.

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02/02/17 Original text by:

Augusto C Carvajal Vélez, Consultant, Puerto Rico

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Moorochloa eruciformis (sweet signal grass)

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