Bacopa monnieri
(water hyssop)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Flowers Caption Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); flowers and leaves. Kanaha Beach, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2007. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Flowers	Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); flowers and leaves. Kanaha Beach, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2007.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit. Puhilele Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii,USA. May 2004. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit. Puhilele Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii,USA. May 2004.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit, showing flowers and leaves. Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India. November 2013. Copyright Public Domain - Released by Dr S.Soundarapandian/via wikipedia - CC 0	Habit	Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit, showing flowers and leaves. Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India. November 2013.	Public Domain - Released by Dr S.Soundarapandian/via wikipedia - CC 0
Title Flower Caption Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); flower and leaves. Hyderabad, India. September 2009. Copyright ©J.M. Garg/via wikipedia - CC BY 3.0	Flower	Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); flower and leaves. Hyderabad, India. September 2009.	©J.M. Garg/via wikipedia - CC BY 3.0
Title Habit Caption Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit, as a dense matt of Bacope vegetation. Kealia Pond NWR, Maui, Hawaii, USA. June 2013. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit, as a dense matt of Bacope vegetation. Kealia Pond NWR, Maui, Hawaii, USA. June 2013.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Title Habit Caption Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit. Maliko, Maui, Hawaii, USA. May 2010. Copyright ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0	Habit	Bacopa monnieri (water hyssop); habit. Maliko, Maui, Hawaii, USA. May 2010.	©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.

Preferred Common Name

• water hyssop

Other Scientific Names

• Anisocalyx limnanthiflorus (L.) Hance
• Bacopa micromonnieria (Griseb.) B.L.Rob
• Bramia indica Lam.
• Bramia micromonnieria (Griseb.) Pennell
• Bramia monnieri (L.) Drake
• Bramia monnieri (L.) Pennell
• Calytriplex obovata Ruiz & Pav.
• Capraria monnieria Roxb.
• Gratiola monnieri (L.) L.
• Gratiola portulacacea Weinm.
• Gratiola tetrandra Stokes
• Habershamia cuneifolia (Michx.) Raf.
• Herpestis cuneifolia Michx
• Herpestis micromonnieria Griseb.
• Herpestis monnieri (L.) Kunth
• Herpestis monnieri (L.) Rothm.
• Herpestis procumbens Spreng.
• Limosella calycina Forssk.
• Lysimachia monnieri L.
• Monniera cuneifolia Michx.
• Septas repens Lour.

International Common Names

• English: bacopa; coastal water-hyssop; herb-of-grace; white hyssop
• French: bacopa de monnier; bacopa des herbalistes; bacopa médicinale; bramia de saint-paul; petite bacopa
• Chinese: jia ma chi xian

Local Common Names

• Cambodia: snau
• El Salvador: verdolaga
• India: adha-birni; afed chamni; brahmi; farfakh; gundala; Indian-pennywort; indravalli
• Lesser Antilles: veronique
• Malaysia: beremi
• Mexico: baraima
• Philippines: ulasimang-aso
• Puerto Rico: yerba de culebra
• Thailand: phak mi; phrommi
• Vietnam: rau sam

Summary of Invasiveness

Bacopa monnieri is an aquatic herb that has been used as an ornamental in ponds and aquaria and as a medicinal herb. It grows gregariously and often forms dense mats in marshy places, mangroves, riverbanks, coastal areas and along streams and ditches. It can tolerate brackish water and has adapted to grow under varying soil and climatic conditions, performing exceptionally well on poorly drained soils and waterlogged areas. It is native to the Americas, Asia and Africa and listed as invasive in Japan, Singapore, Spain, Portugal and the Cayman Islands. In aquatic habitats it has deleterious effects on native plants and animals, water quality, water flow and sedimentation. In terrestrial situations it degrades riverbanks, margins of ponds, lakes and coastal areas.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Scrophulariales
•                         Family: Scrophulariaceae
•                             Genus: Bacopa
•                                 Species: Bacopa monnieri

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The genus Bacopa has been assigned to the family Plantaginacae, following the disintegration of the family Scrophulariaceae (Olmstead et al., 2001; Olmstead, 2002), with Plantaginacae taking precedence over the younger proposed family name Veronicaceae.

Plantaginaceae is a diverse family comprising approximately 90 genera and 1900 species distributed mostly across temperate regions but also occurring in tropical and subtropical areas. Species within Plantaginaceae include herbs, shrubs and aquatic plants that can be distinguished by two features: the frequent absence of regular vertical partitions in the heads of the glandular hairs and septicidal capsule dehiscence (Stevens, 2017).

The genus Bacopa comprises approximately 55 to 70 species of aquatic herbs (most of which grow as amphibious plants) distributed across tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Bacopa is sometimes confused with other small prostrate herbs like Lindernia, Callitriche, Stemodia and Mecardonia that may be found in similar habitats (Flora Mesoamericana, 2017; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017; The Plant List, 2013; Flora of Panama, 2017).

Description

Herbs prostrate to decumbent, succulent, glabrous. Stems creeping, to 50 cm, loosely ascending, rooting at nodes, much-branched. Leaves sessile, 0.5-2 cm by 0.15-0.8 cm, oblong-oblanceolate, the bases cuneate, the margins entire or denticulate, the apices rounded, with 1-3 parallel veins from the base of the blade, glabrous. Inflorescences of solitary axillary flowers; pedicels 0.5 cm to 1(-3.5) cm; bracteoles 2, 1.3-4.5 mm, lanceolate-linear, below calyx. Calyx 4.2-7 mm; outer 3 sepals succulent, ovate-lanceolate, apices rounded, inner 2 lanceolate to linear, keeled, ciliate. Corolla 6-9 mm, campanulate, 5-lobed, nearly regular, but the lower central lobe somewhat longer and more separated from the other lobes, white, pink or lavender blue, often with purple lines, the throat dark purple, the tube yellow within. Stigma capitate, united. Capsule 4.5-5 mm, ovoid, enveloped in persistent calyx; seeds numerous 0.5 mm long, longitudinally reticulate, the reticulum reddish brown (Flora Mesoamericana, 2017; Flora of Panama, 2017). 

Plant Type

Distribution

It is most likely that B. monnieri originates from tropical Asia, and is now widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics. It can be found across Asia, Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Australia, the Iberian Peninsula, the Americas and the Caribbean (Lansdown et al., 2013; USDA-ARS, 2017). It is listed as introduced in Japan, Singapore, Spain, Portugal and the Cayman Islands (Díaz and Beiras, 2007​; APASD, 2007; DAISIE, 2017; ISSG, 2017; GRIIS, 2017).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

Intentional introduction

B. monnieri has been intentionally introduced by humans to be grown as a medicinal herb and also as an ornamental plant in ponds and aquaria (USDA-ARS, 2017). It is listed as introduced and invasive in Japan, Singapore, Spain, Portugal and the Cayman Islands (​Díaz and Beiras, 2007​; APASD, 2007; DAISIE, 2017; ISSG, 2017; GRIIS, 2017).

Habitat

B. monnieri is an amphibious plant that can be found growing in both terrestrial and submersed aquatic conditions, as well as in the interface between these two environments. It often grows in wet places, roadsides, gardens, in mud or sand along riverbanks, ponds and lakes, wooded slopes, on the edges of mangroves, estuaries, swamps and on sandy beaches along the coast at elevations below 1400 m (Flora Mesoamericana, 2017; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017). It can tolerate somewhat brackish water and is often found on foreshores (Flora of Panama, 2017).

Habitat List

Hosts/Species Affected

B. monnieri grows as a weed of rice fields and wet pastures and it can also colonize small-scale irrigated fields beneath date palms (Lansdown et al., 2013; ISSG, 2017; PROSEA, 2017).

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number reported for B. monnieri is 2n = 64 (Samaddar et al., 2012).

Reproductive biology

In India, plants of B. monnieri bear hundreds of small blue-white flowers throughout the year. The reproductive system was found to be self compatible with entomophilous behavior. The honeybees Apis dorsata and Apis florea are regular visitors of the flowers of B. monnieri in India. The seeds of B. monnieri show a distinct dormancy period and sunlight appears to be an essential requirement for seed germination (Mathur and Kumar, 2001; PROSEA, 2017).

Physiology and phenology

In America and India, B. monnieri has been reported flowering and fruiting throughout the year (Flora Mesoamericana, 2017; India Biodiversity Portal, 2017). In China, it has been recorded flowering from May to October (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017).

Activity patterns

 B. monnieri is a perennial or sometimes annual plant. Plants may grow from seed to adult in around 6 months (PROSEA, 2017).

Environmental requirements

B. monnieri performs exceptionally well in poorly drained soils and waterlogged areas. It prefers areas with temperature range from 16°C to 28°C and sandy soils with pH in the range of 6.3 to 8.8. It can also grow in water with pH ranging from 5.5. to 7.3 and water hardness (dGH) in the range 142.86 - 535.71 ppm. B. monnieri has adapted to grow in foreshore, seashore and marshy areas within the influence of salt and brackish water (Flora Mesoamericana, 2017; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017; PROSEA, 2017).

Climate

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Air Temperature

Rainfall Regime

Soil Tolerances

Soil drainage

• seasonally waterlogged

Soil reaction

• alkaline
• neutral

Soil texture

• light

Special soil tolerances

• saline

Water Tolerances

Natural enemies

Notes on Natural Enemies

B. monnieri is a caterpillar food plant of the white peacock butterfly, Anartia jatrophae. The tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura, has been observed to cause damage under greenhouse conditions (Tripathi et al., 1997). B. monnieri is also a host for several nematodes in the genus Meloidogyne (PROSEA, 2017). 

Means of Movement and Dispersal

B. monnieri spreads both by seeds and vegetatively by stem fragments. Seeds and stem fragments are commonly spread by waterways and floods, with new plants developing rapidly from any piece of stem or root material containing a node (PROSEA, 2017).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Impact

B. monnieri is a weed of terrestrial and aquatic habitats, forming dense mats in wetlands, wet pastures, rice fields, irrigated areas, riversides and coastal areas. In aquatic habitats, it has deleterious effects on native plants and animals, water quality, water flow and sedimentation. In terrestrial situations, it degrades riverbanks, margins of ponds, lakes and coastal areas. It has been listed as invasive in Japan, Singapore, Portugal, Spain and the Cayman Islands (​Díaz and Beiras, 2007​; APASD, 2007; Varnham, 2009; DAISIE, 2017; ISSG, 2017; GRIIS, 2017).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Has a broad native range
• Abundant in its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Is a habitat generalist
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Highly mobile locally
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Gregarious
• Reproduces asexually

• Damaged ecosystem services
• Modification of hydrology
• Monoculture formation
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Reduced amenity values
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Rapid growth
• Rooting

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
• Difficult to identify/detect in the field

Uses

Productive Uses and Management

B. monnieri is a medicinal plant used for centuries in traditional Indian medicine and in Ayurveda medicine. It is widely promoted to enhance memory, learning and concentration and also to treat anxiety, depression, and cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hepatic, neurological and respiratory problems. Plant extract and isolated bacosides (the major active components) have been extensively investigated in laboratory and clinical tests for their neuropharmacological effects and nootropic action. Studies have suggested that the active ingredients within B. monnieri may improve memory, attention, cognition and mood (Pase et al., 2012). In Peninsular Malaysia and Vietnam, the plant is sometimes eaten as a vegetable despite its bitterness. It is also a very popular aquatic plant among aquarium fish keepers (Russo and Borrelli, 2005; Charoenphon et al., 2016; PROSEA, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).

 Economic value

In India, B. monnieri is cultivated as a medicinal plant. The dried herb is found in several Indian herbal nutritional supplements called "Smart Drugs", specifically for cognitive enhancement, reducing fatigue and forgetfulness. Across South East Asia, herbalists trade the dried plant in pharmacies (PROSEA, 2017).

Uses List

Environmental

• Amenity

General

• Pet/aquarium trade

Human food and beverage

• Vegetable

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• garden plant

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., Strong, M. T., 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies, Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

APASD, 2007. Asian-Pacific Alien Species Database. http://www.naro.affrc.go.jp/archive/niaes/techdoc/apasd/Bacopa%20monnieri%20-B.html

Barringer KA, 2015. Scrophulariaceae. In: Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica. Vol. VIII , 131 [ed. by Hammel BE, Grayum MH, Herrera C, Zamora N ]. 149–192.

Broome, R., Sabir, K., Carrington, S., 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. In: Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database , Barbados: University of the West Indies.http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Charoenphon N, Anandsongvit N, Kosai P, et al., 2016. Bacopa monnieri: Up-to-date of memory boosting medicinal plant: A review. Indian Journal Of Agricultural Research, 1, 50-60.

DAISIE, 2017. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. In: Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe . http://www.europe-aliens.org/

Díaz JF, Beiras MB, 2007. Invasive Plants Of Galicia. Biology, distribution and control methods. (Plantas Invasoras De Galicia. Bioloxía, distribución e métodos de control). Xunta De Galicia, http://www.siam-cma.org/PUBLICACIONS/doc.asp?id=373

Flora do Brasil, 2017. Brazilian flora 2020. In: Brazilian flora 2020 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden.http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br

Flora Mesoamericana, 2017. Flora Mesoamericana. (Flora Mesoamericana). In: Flora Mesoamericana St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.http://www.tropicos.org/Project/fm

Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of China. In: Flora of China St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Flora of Panama, 2017. Flora of Panama (WFO). In: Flora of Panama (WFO) St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, MA, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.tropicos.org/Project/FOPWFO

GRIIS, 2017. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species. http://www.griis.org/

India Biodiversity Portal, 2017. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. In: Online Portal of India Biodiversity . http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list

ISSG, 2017. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). In: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) : Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission.http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/

Jyoti Tripathi, Dwijendra Singh, Shalini Mathur, 1997. Outbreak of Spodoptera litura on brahmi - an important medicinal plant. Insect Environment, 2(4), 134.

Lansdown RV, Knees SG, Patzelt A, 2013. Bacopa monnieri. In: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013 . http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T164168A17722668.en

Mathur, S., Kumar, S., 2001. Reproductive biology of Bacopa monnieri. Journal of Genetics & Breeding, 55(2), 101-109.

Olmstead RG, 2002. Whatever happened to the Scrophulariaceae?. Fremontia, 30(2), 13-22.

Olmstead RG, dePamphilis CW, Wolfe ND, et al., 2001. Disintegration of the Scrophulariaceae. American Journal of Botany, 88, 348-361.

Pase, M. P., Kean, J., Sarris, J., Neale, C., Scholey, A. B., Stough, C., 2012. The cognitive-enhancing effects of Bacopa monnieri: a systematic review of randomized, controlled human clinical trials. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 18(7), 647-652. http://online.liebertpub.com/acm doi: 10.1089/acm.2011.0367

PROSEA, 2017. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Online resources. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA Foundation.https://www.prota4u.org/prosea/

Russo, A., Borrelli, F., 2005. Bacopa monniera, a reputed nootropic plant: an overview. Phytomedicine, 12(4), 305-317. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09447113http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09447113 doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2003.12.008

Samaddar T, Nath S, Halder M, et al., 2012. Karyotype analysis of three important traditional Indian medicinal plants, Bacopa monnieri, Tylophora indica and Withania somnifera. The Nucleus, 55, 17-20.

Stevens, P. F., 2017. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14. In: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14 . St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/

The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. In: The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1 Richmond, London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://www.theplantlist.org

USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. In: Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory.https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2017. The PLANTS Database. In: The PLANTS Database Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team.https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Varnham K, 2009. Database of non-native species occurring in UK Overseas Territories. JNCC Report 372, Peterborough, UK

Links to Websites

Contributors

04/01/18 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps