Sonchus asper (spiny sow-thistle)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Growth Stages
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Sonchus asper (L.) Hill
Preferred Common Name
- spiny sow-thistle
Other Scientific Names
- Sonchus aemulus Merino
- Sonchus asper (L.) Vill.
- Sonchus asper All.
- Sonchus borderi Gand.
- Sonchus carolinianus Walter
- Sonchus cuspidatus Blume
- Sonchus decipiens (De Not.) Zenari
- Sonchus eryngiifolius Sosn.
- Sonchus eryngioides DC.
- Sonchus fallax Wallr.
- Sonchus glaber Thunb.
- Sonchus infestus Poepp. ex DC.
- Sonchus spinosus Lam.
- Sonchus spinulosus Bigelow
- Sonchus sulphureus Boiss.
- Sonchus tibesticus Quézel
- Sonchus umbellatus E.Mey. ex DC.
- Sonchus viridis Zenari
International Common Names
- English: blue sow-thistle; prickly sow-thistle; rough sow-thistle; spiny-leaf sow-thistle
- Spanish: cardo; cardo espinoso; cerraja
- French: chaudronnet; laiteron âpre; laiteron épineux; laiteron piquant; laiteron rude; lastron piquant
- Chinese: hua ye dian ku cai
- Portuguese: serralha áspera; serralha espinhosa; serralha preta
Local Common Names
- Czech Republic: mlé
- Dominican Republic: lechuguilla; yerba espinosa
- Finland: aitoukonhattu; metsätähti
- Norway: skogstjerne; venusvogn
- Sweden: balkansippa; skogsalpsklocka; skogsstjärna; trädgårdsstormhatt
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageSonchus asper is an annual herb considered native to Europe, Africa and Asia that has been introduced to a wide range of countries around the world, where it frequently becomes an environmental and agricultural weed. The species grows in a wide range of habitats and climates, and produces large numbers of seeds (>20,000 seeds), which are easily dispersed by wind and water, but also as contaminants. Because S. asper is very successful colonising disturbed sites, as well as natural habitats at early successional stages, it has the potential to outcompete native plant species, inhibit the establishment of other native pioneer species and thus alter natural successional processes. It is also regarded as a noxious species due to hosting diseases and pests that affect crops.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Sonchus
- Species: Sonchus asper
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageSonchus is a genus of about 60-90 species that contains annual, biennial and perennial herbs. Its main diversity occurs in Africa, the Mediterranean region and the mid-Atlantic archipelagos, but it also comprises woody species endemic to Macaronesia, and several cosmopolitan weedy species (Kim et al., 2007; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
Description
Top of pageThis description was taken from the Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018):
Herbs 20-50 cm tall, annual or occasionally biennial. Stem usually unbranched and glabrous below synflorescence. Basal and lower stem leaves extremely variable, obovate, spatulate, or elliptic, 7-13 × 2-5 cm, undivided or ± irregularly pinnatisect, glabrous, adaxially dark green and ± glossy, base attenuate and ± auriculate, margin usually densely spinulosely dentate, apex acute, acuminate, or obtuse; lateral lobes ± triangular, semiorbicular, or elliptic. Middle and upper stem leaves spatulate to lanceolate, base auriculately clasping with conspicuous rounded and appressed auricles, otherwise similar to lower leaves. Synflorescence densely corymbiform, with few capitula. Capitula with many florets; peduncle 0.5-5 cm, slender, glabrous or densely glandular hairy. Involucre ± campanulate, 1.2 cm. Phyllaries abaxially glabrous or more rarely glandular hairy, apex acute; outer phyllaries narrowly lanceolate, 1-2 mm wide. Corolla 1 cm. Achene ± broadly obcolumnar, 2-3 mm, strongly compressed, ± winged, between lateral ribs usually with 3 slender ribs on either side, space between slender ribs much wider than ribs, smooth with only lateral ribs usually antrorsely finely spinulose. Pappus 7 mm ± caduceus.
Distribution
Top of pageThe native distribution range of S. asper is still uncertain, but the species is considered native to Europe, Africa and temperate Asia. It has been introduced and become naturalized across parts of Asia, Scandinavia, Canada, USA, Mexico, Central and South America, the Caribbean, southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Region and some sub-Antarctic islands, such as Gough Island, Auckland Islands and Campbell Island (DAISIE, 2018; Flora Mesoamericana, 2018; GISD, 2018; PIER, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Algeria | Present | Native | |||||
Angola | Present | Native | |||||
Botswana | Present | Native | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Native | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Native | |||||
Egypt | Present | Native | |||||
Eritrea | Present | Native | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | |||||
Kenya | Present | Native | |||||
Lesotho | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Libya | Present | Native | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Native | |||||
Malawi | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Morocco | Present | Native | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Native | |||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Rwanda | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Helena | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Native | |||||
Somalia | Present | Native | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Sudan | Present | Native | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | |||||
Tunisia | Present | Native | |||||
Uganda | Present | Native | |||||
Zambia | Present | Native | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | |||||
Antarctica |
|||||||
French Southern Territories | Present | Introduced | 1857 | Original location reported: Kerguelen Islands | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | Native | |||||
Armenia | Present | Native | |||||
Azerbaijan | Present | Native | |||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
China | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Anhui | Present | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
-Henan | Present | ||||||
-Hubei | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
-Jiangsu | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
-Shandong | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
-Sichuan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
-Xinjiang | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
India | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Present based on regional distribution | |||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Assam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Manipur | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Mizoram | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Nagaland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Odisha | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Punjab | Present | ||||||
-Sikkim | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Tripura | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-West Bengal | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Iran | Present | Native | |||||
Iraq | Present | Native | |||||
Israel | Present | Native | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Jordan | Present | Native | |||||
Kazakhstan | Present | Native | |||||
Kyrgyzstan | Present | Native | |||||
Lebanon | Present | Native | |||||
Nepal | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | 1917 | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced (invasive) in the country | ||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed | |||
Tajikistan | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Turkey | Present | Native | |||||
Turkmenistan | Present | Native | |||||
Uzbekistan | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Yemen | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | Native | |||||
Austria | Present | Native | |||||
Belarus | Present | Native | |||||
Belgium | Present | Native | |||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Present | Native | |||||
Bulgaria | Present | Native | |||||
Croatia | Present | Native | |||||
Cyprus | Present | Native | |||||
Czechia | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced (invasive) in the country | ||||
Denmark | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced (invasive) in the country | ||||
Estonia | Present | Native | |||||
Finland | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced (invasive) in the country | ||||
France | Present | Native | |||||
-Corsica | Present | Native | |||||
Germany | Present | Native | |||||
Greece | Present | Native | |||||
Hungary | Present | Native | |||||
Iceland | Present | Introduced | 1939 | ||||
Ireland | Present | Native | |||||
Italy | Present | Native | |||||
-Sardinia | Present | ||||||
Latvia | Present | Native | |||||
Lithuania | Present | Native | |||||
Moldova | Present | Native | |||||
Montenegro | Present | Native | |||||
Netherlands | Present | Native | |||||
North Macedonia | Present | Native | |||||
Norway | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced (invasive) in the country | ||||
Poland | Present | Native | |||||
Portugal | Present | Native | |||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Romania | Present | Native | |||||
Russia | Present | Native | |||||
-Eastern Siberia | Present | Native | |||||
-Russian Far East | Present | Native | |||||
-Western Siberia | Present | Native | |||||
Serbia | Present | Native | |||||
Slovakia | Present | Native | |||||
Slovenia | Present | Native | |||||
Spain | Present | Native | |||||
-Balearic Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Sweden | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced (invasive) in the country | ||||
Switzerland | Present | Native | |||||
Ukraine | Present | Native and Introduced | Considered both native and introduced (invasive) in the country | ||||
United Kingdom | Present | Native | |||||
-Channel Islands | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | Present based on regional distribution | ||||
-Alberta | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
-British Columbia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
-Manitoba | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
-New Brunswick | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Newfoundland and Labrador | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Nova Scotia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ontario | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
-Prince Edward Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Quebec | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
-Saskatchewan | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Noxious weed | |||
-Yukon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Greenland | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Weed | ||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as weed | |||
Nicaragua | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Panama | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Introduced | Present based on regional distribution | ||||
-Alabama | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Alaska | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as noxious weed | |||
-Arizona | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Arkansas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-California | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Colorado | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Connecticut | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Delaware | Present | Introduced | |||||
-District of Columbia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as noxious weed | |||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Idaho | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Illinois | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Indiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Iowa | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kansas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Kentucky | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as noxious weed | |||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maine | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maryland | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Michigan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Minnesota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Missouri | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Montana | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Nebraska | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as noxious weed | |||
-Nevada | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Hampshire | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Jersey | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
-New York | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-North Dakota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ohio | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Oregon | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Rhode Island | Present | Introduced | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Introduced | |||||
-South Dakota | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Utah | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Vermont | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Virginia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Washington | Present | Introduced | |||||
-West Virginia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Wisconsin | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Wyoming | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Lord Howe Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Tasmania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | La Pampa, San Luis, Santa Fe, Entre Rios, Buenos Aires | |||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Alagoas | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Bahia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Ceara | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Goias | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Paraiba | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Pernambuco | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Sergipe | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Chile | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Invasive in Juan Fernandez archipelago | |||
-Easter Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Falkland Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageLike many Old World weeds, S. asper was apparently introduced unintentionally into the New World by European explorers during the colonisation of America. In North America, it was probably introduced early in the 1800s. Achenes of S. asper have been found in adobe bricks used to build missions in California. In Canada, the earliest herbarium collection is from 1871, in Ontario (Hutchinson et al., 1984).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageNo economic uses are known for S. asper, making the risk of intentional introductions low. However, this cosmopolitan weed is a prolific seed producer and its tiny seeds can be easily dispersed by human activities, as a contaminant in crop and grass seed, a hitchhiker on footwear, or attached to animals, which increases the risk of spread (Hutchinson et al., 1984; GISD, 2018; PROTA, 2018).
Habitat
Top of pageS. asper is a pioneer species that often invades sites disturbed by human activities, such as roadsides, cultivated fields, wastelands, gardens, gravel pits, mines and logged areas. It also occurs in areas naturally disturbed by grazing, landslides or fire. It can also be found in mountain slopes, forest and field margins, ruderal areas, grasslands, along lakeshores and streams, and on muddy sites, at elevations from 750 m to 3700 m (Flora Mesoamericana, 2018; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018; PROTA, 2018). Across Canada and the USA, this species is fairly common in riparian and coastal habitats, particularly on disturbed sites (Hutchinson et al., 1984; ANHP, 2010; GISD, 2018).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial-managed/Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Littoral/Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Littoral/Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-managed/Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial-natural/semi-natural/Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Littoral/Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageS. asper has been listed as a weed of alfalfa, cotton, coffee, beans, garbanzo beans, tomato and maize plantations (Villaseñor and Espinosa, 1998; Vibrans, 2009).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Allium cepa (onion) | Liliaceae | Unknown | |
Capsicum (peppers) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
Cicer arietinum (chickpea) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee) | Rubiaceae | Main | |
Curcuma longa (turmeric) | Zingiberaceae | Unknown | |
Gossypium (cotton) | Malvaceae | Main | |
Medicago sativa (lucerne) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Phaseolus (beans) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Main | |
Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for S. asper is 2n = 18 (Hutchinson et al., 1984; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). Crossings between S. asper and S. oleraceus may occur, but the hybrids are sterile (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018).
Reproductive Biology
S. asper has bisexual self-compatible flowers. Flowers are pollinated by insects, including solitary bees and flies, but also by wind. Seeds are produced both through selfing and outcrossing (Hutchinson et al., 1984).
Physiology and Phenology
In North America, seeds of S. asper germinate from spring through fall. Seeds normally germinate 2-3 weeks after planting. The seedlings attain the rosette stage at 6 weeks of age and start producing flowers after 9 weeks. Mature achenes are produced about a week after flowering (Hutchinson et al., 1984). Plants that germinate in the fall overwinter as rosettes (Hutchinson et al., 1984; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018).
In China, S. asper has been recorded flowering and fruiting from May to October (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). In the USA, it produces flowers and fruits from March to November in the north and year-round in the south (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018). In Central America, it has been recorded with flowers and fruits throughout the year (Flora Mesoamericana, 2018; Flora of Nicaragua, 2018).
Longevity
S. asper is an annual or biennial herb (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018; USDA-NRSC, 2018). It overwinters in the vegetative phase as rosettes or seeds. Seeds may remain viable in the soil for 1 to 3 years (Hutchinson et al., 1984; DiTomaso and Healy, 2007).
Environmental Requirements
The cosmopolitan range of S. asper suggests a broad tolerance of climatic variation and great ability to thrive in many different environments. However, light and disturbance seem to be the major requirements for the germination and establishment of this species. Currently, S. asper grows mostly in disturbed sites extending from 70°N to 50°S, in areas with annual rainfall ranging form 300 mm to 3000 mm and daily temperature above 5°C. It can grow in clay, loam and sandy soils with pH between 6.5 and 9. Plants tolerate saline soils and calcium carbonate content up to 55% (Hutchinson et al., 1984; Holm et al., 1997; ANHP, 2010).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tolerated | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Preferred | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | |
Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) | |
Df - Continental climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
70 | 50 | 750 | 3700 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 300 | 3000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternaria sonchi | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Aphidoletes aphidimyza | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Aphis fabae | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Beet western yellows virus | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Beet yellow stunt virus | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | ||||
Bremia lactucae | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Calycomyza sonchi | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Chromatomyia syngenesiae | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Cnephasia longana | Herbivore | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Hyperomyzus lactucae | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Hyperomyzus pallidus | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Lettuce necrotic yellows virus | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | ||||
Meloidogyne | Parasite | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Ophiomyia coniceps | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Ophiomyia pulicaria | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Phytoliriomyza arctica | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves; Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Podosphaera fuliginea | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Pratylenchus penetrans | Parasite | Other|All Stages | not specific | |||
Sowthistle yellow vein virus | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | ||||
Uroleucon sonchi | Pathogen | Other|All Stages | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageS. asper is an important alternative host of a number of crop pests and diseases, including (Hutchinson et al. 1984; Vieira and Barreto, 2006; GISD, 2018):
- aphids (Aphididae) Aphis fabae, Hyperomyzus lactucae, H. pallidus and Uroleucon sonchi;
- the larva of the Cecidomyiid fly Aphidoletes aphidimyza, which was originally described from S. asper in Europe;
- leaf miners Ophiomyia pulicaria, O. coniceps, Phytomyza syngenesiae [Chromatomyia syngenesiae], Phytoliriomyza arctica and Calycomyza sonchi;
- the moth (Tortricidae) Cnephasia longana;
- nematodes Meloidogyne spp. and Pratylenchus penetrans;
- fungal infections Bremia lactucae (downy mildew), Sphaerotheca fuliginea [Podosphaera fuliginea] (a powdery mildew) and Alternaria sonchi;
- viruses: beet western yellows virus, lettuce necrotic yellows virus, beet yellow stunt virus and sowthistle yellow vein virus.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
S. asper spreads by seed. Each reproductive plant may produce between 20,000 and 26,000 seeds that are primarily dispersed by wind, but also by water, or spread after being ingested by birds or small mammals. Seeds remain viable after passing through the digestive system of birds, small mammals and livestock (Hutchinson et al. 1984; DiTomaso and Healy, 2007; ANHP, 2010; GISD, 2018).
Accidental Introduction
Seeds of S. asper may be dispersed by animals, adhered to feathers and fur, and also by humans on clothing, shoes, vehicles and machinery. The species has also been documented as a contaminant of commercial grass and crop seeds (Hutchinson et al. 1984; DiTomaso and Healy, 2007; ANHP, 2010; GISD, 2018).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Agricultural weed | Yes | Yes | Vibrans (2009) |
Digestion and excretion | Seeds consumed and dispersed by birds, small mammals and cattle | Yes | Yes | Hutchinson et al. (1984) |
Disturbance | Very common in disturbed sites, described as a pioneer species | Yes | Yes | Hutchinson et al. (1984) |
Garden waste disposal | Weed in gardens | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2018) |
Hitchhiker | Seeds in crop seed, feathers, fur, clothing, shoes, machinery | Yes | Yes | GISD (2018) |
Medicinal use | Used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2018) |
People foraging | Leaves are eaten as a vegetable | Yes | Yes | Useful Tropical Plants (2014) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Seeds as contaminant | Yes | Yes | GISD (2018) |
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds as contaminant | Yes | Yes | GISD (2018) |
Machinery and equipment | Seeds as contaminant | Yes | Yes | GISD (2018) |
Livestock | Seeds consumed and dispersed by livestock | Yes | Yes | Hutchinson et al. (1984) |
Water | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Hutchinson et al. (1984) |
Wind | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Hutchinson et al. (1984) |
Economic Impact
Top of pageS. asper is a weed of agricultural lands (Villaseñor and Espinosa, 1998; Vibrans, 2009), but is also an important alternative host of pests, viruses and diseases that affect crops. It acts as host to economically important aphids that are vectors of “yellows” virus diseases and it is also an important host of the downy mildew Bremia lactucae, one of the worst diseases affecting lettuce plantations (Hutchinson et al., 1984; Vieira and Barreto, 2006; GISD, 2018; PROTA, 2018). The species causes major problems in winter crops and tillage systems throughout southern Australia, Southeast Queensland and Northern New South Wales (Weeds of Australia, 2018).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageS. asper is an environmental weed very successful at colonising disturbed and open sites. There, it can occur scattered, but also forming dense stands that outcompete native plant species and inhibit the establishment of other native pioneer species, thus causing alterations in natural successional processes. Because S. asper is pollinated by insects, its introduction can also alter plant-pollinator interactions (Hutchinson et al., 1984; ANHP, 2010; GISD, 2018; Weeds of Australia, 2018).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Pest and disease transmission
- Hybridization
- Rapid growth
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageS. asper is harvested from the wild for local use as food and medicine. The leaves are eaten as a cooked vegetable or occasionally raw in salads. In the Mediterranean region and Southeast Asia, use of S. asper as a vegetable is widespread. In Africa, its use as a vegetable is reported from Madagascar.
In Asia, the plant is pounded and applied as a poultice to wounds and boils (Useful Tropical Plants, 2014). In Africa, the plant is used to treat warts (PROTA, 2018).
Uses List
Top of pageHuman food and beverage
- Vegetable
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageS. asper looks very similar to the close relative S. oleraceus, a species that is also a cosmopolitan weed. However, S. oleraceus has flatter, less spiky leaf margins and sharply acute, downward pointing auricles in leaves and bracts. In addition, in S. oleraceus, the achenes are narrower, never winged at the margins, transversely rugulose and scabrous at maturity. Most of them are brown, but those of the outermost whorl are paler and more olive in colour (Hutchinson et al., 1984; ANHP, 2010).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Physical/mechanical control
Small or isolated populations of S. asper can be manually removed while plants are young, prior to seed set. The taproot must be removed, as resprouting can occur if left in the soil.
Grazing of S. asper by cattle and sheep could be used to suppress infestations in pastures (GISD, 2018).
Biological control
In Australia, surveys searching for biological control agents of S. asper have identified the rust fungus Miyagia pseudosphaeria and an unidentified eriophyid mite species as potential candidates. However, studies determining the impact of these potential control agents on related native Australian species are still in progress (CSIRO, 2007; GISD, 2018).
Chemical control
Herbicides such as soxaben, 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, clopyralid, dicamba, glyphosate, picloram, Dimethyl tetrachloroterephthalate (DCPA), diethatyl-ethyl, MCPA, amitrole, atrazine, bromoxynil, chlorsulfuron, dichlorprop, isoxaben, norflurazon, oryzalin, oxyfluorfen and paraquat have been used to control infestations of S. asper in agricultural lands. However, S. asper has developed resistance to chlorsulfuron, atrazine and the herbicide metsulfuron-methyl (Rashid et al., 2003; GISD, 2018; Weeds of Australia, 2018). Biotypes resistant to the herbicides thifensulfuron, metsulfuron, prosulfuron, imazamox and imazethapyr have been found across North America, Australia and Europe (Park et al., 2012).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of seed plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution.1192 pp.
ANHP, 2010. Alaska Natural Heritage Program. Datasheet for spiny sowthistle. Alaska, USA: University of Alaska Anchorage. http://accs.uaa.alaska.edu/files/invasive-species/Sonchus_asper_BIO_SOAS.pdf
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
CSIRO, 2007. Management and control of sowthistles in Australia. Wembley, WA, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation.
DAISIE, 2018. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. DAISIE (online). http://www.europe-aliens.org/default.do
Danton P, Perrier C, Martinez RG, 2006. New catalogue of the vascular flora of the Juan Fernández Archipelago (Chile). (Nuevo catálogo de la flora vascular del Archipélago Juan Fernández (Chile)). Acta Botanica Gallica, 153(4), 399-587.
Flora Mesoamericana, 2018. Flora Mesoamericana. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/fm
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora of Nicaragua, 2018. Flora of Nicaragua, Tropicos website. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/ProjectList.aspx
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018. Flora of North America North of Mexico. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
GISD, 2018. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/
IABIN, 2017. Invasives Information Network (I3N). Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network. http://www.institutohorus.org.br/iabin/i3n/
Kim SC, Chunghee L, Mejías JA, 2007. Phylogenetic analysis of chloroplast DNA matK gene and ITS of nrDNA sequences reveals polyphyly of the genus Sonchus and new relationships among the subtribe Sonchinae (Asteraceae: Cichorieae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 44(2), 578-597.
Mir C, 2012. [English title not available]. (Estrategia Nacional de especies exóticas invasoras realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticas invasoras en el Caribe Insular”). Dominican Republic: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo.
PIER, 2018. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2018. PROTA 4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. https://www.prota4u.org/
Schneider A, 2015. Sonchus in Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB112277
USDA-ARS, 2018. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
USDA-NRCS, 2018. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Useful Tropical Plants, 2014. Useful Tropical Plants Database. http://tropical.theferns.info/
Vibrans H, 2009. Weeds of Mexico. Alphabetical list of species, ordered by genera. (Malezas de México. Listado alfabético de las especies, ordenadas por género). http://www.conabio.gob.mx
Villaseñor RJL, Espinosa JG, 1998. Catalogue of weeds of Mexico. (Catálogo de malezas de México.), Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and Consejo Nacional Consultivo Fitosanitario.
Weeds of Australia, 2018. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/index.htm
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Danton P, Perrier C, Martinez RG, 2006. New catalogue of the vascular flora of the Juan Fernández Archipelago (Chile). (Nuevo catálogo de la flora vascular del Archipélago Juan Fernández (Chile)). In: Acta Botanica Gallica, 153 (4) 399-587.
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
GISD, 2018. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD)., http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/
IABIN, 2017. Invasives Information Network (I3N). Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network., http://www.institutohorus.org.br/iabin/i3n/
Mir C, 2012. [English title not available]. (Estrategia Nacional de especies exóticas invasoras realizado en el marco del Proyecto “Mitigando las amenazas de las especies exóticas invasoras en el Caribe Insular”)., Dominican Republic: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Santo Domingo.
Schneider A, 2015. Sonchus. In: Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB112277
Vibrans H, 2009. Weeds of Mexico. Alphabetical list of species, ordered by genera. (Malezas de México. Listado alfabético de las especies, ordenadas por género)., http://www.conabio.gob.mx
Weeds of Australia, 2018. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition., http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/index.htm
Contributors
Top of page07/08/18 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA
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