Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Flowering habit | Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick); flowering habit. | ©Amazonia Exotics U.K/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0 | |
| Flowerheads | Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick); spent flowerheads. Punakea Loop LZ Launiupoko, Maui, Hawaii, USA. March 2009. | ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0 | |
| Habit | Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick); flowering habit. Kailua Gulch Makawao Ave, Maui, Hawaii, USA. March 2009. | ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0 | |
| Habit | Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick); invasive habit, with seed heads. Auwahi, Maui, Hawaii, USA. April 2005. | ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0 | |
| Habit | Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick); inasive habit, in pasture (with Opuntia spp). Kula, Maui, Hawaii, USA. April 2009. | ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0 | |
| Habit | Leonotis nepetifolia (Christmas candlestick); vegetative habit. Kawela Bridge, Molokai, Hawaii, USA. October 2014. | ©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0 |
Identity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br.
Preferred Common Name
- Christmas candlestick
Other Scientific Names
- Leonotis nepetaefolia L.) Mill.
- Leonurus globosus Moench
- Leonurus nepetifolius (L.) Mill
- Phlomis nepetifolia L.
International Common Names
- English: bald bush; bald head; bird honey; bird-head; cat-mint-leaved phlomis; grow pompon; Johnny Collins; klip dagga; knod grass; lion's ear; lion's tail; Lord Lavington; minaret flower; wild dagga
- Spanish: botón de cadete; cebadilla; cevadille; cola de león; cordón de fraile; molenillo; molinillo; panchita; quinino de pasto; rubim de bolas; trebolito
- French: grasse mulatre; gros bouton; gros pompon; gros tête; pompon rouge; pompon soldat; sabadi; salbadi
- Chinese: zungzu
- Portuguese: cordão
Local Common Names
- Brazil: cordão-de-frade; cordão-de-San-Francisco
- Cuba: bastón de San Francisco; botón de San Francisco
- Germany: katzenminzblättriges Löwenohr
- India: bara guma; deepa shoole; deepmal; goa gadde; granthi; granthika; granthiparna; granthiparni; kaaduthumbe; lal guma; ranabheri
- Southern Africa: ihambambeba; kambanje; mudyatsonzo; mudzutsu; mukadzimainza; nyamuchena; umhlahlampethu; utshwala-benyoni
- Sweden: sommarlejonöra
- Zimbabwe: momba
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageL. nepetifolia is a large upright herbaceous plant native to tropical Africa. It is a listed invasive species in Australia and Hawaii that grows readily along road shoulders, in abandoned fields, in disturbed areas, and waste lands (Randall, 2001; HPWRA, 2015). It is listed as a pest plant in Florida (Floridata, 2014). Floridata reports that L. nepetifolia is an invasive garden plant in Australia and a pest plant in Hawaii, but it also notes that the species is not a serious pest in most areas because it grows mostly in highly disturbed areas and rarely establishes in natural areas. However, where it does establish, it has the potential to form large colonies that displace native plants (Csurhes and Edwards, 1998). It can be a serious weed of crops including rice and sugarcane in South America (Smith, 2002).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Lamiales
- Family: Lamiaceae
- Genus: Leonotis
- Species: Leonotis nepetifolia
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThere are two distinct varieties of L. nepetifolia: L. nepetifolia (L.) W.T. Aiton var. nepetifolia and L. nepetifolia var. africana (P.Beauv.) J.K.Morton; the former is common throughout the cosmopolitan, pan-tropical range of L. nepetifolia but rare in Central, North-east and West Africa where the latter predominates except in Malawi and East Africa (Iwarsson and Harvey, 2003).
Synonyms exist for the two varieties of L. nepetifolia (The Plant List, 2013).
Leonotis nepetifolia var. africana (P.Beauv.) J.K.Morton:
- Leonotis africana (P.Beauv.) Briq.
- Leonotis pallida (Schumach. & Thonn.) Benth.
- Phlomis africana P.Beauv.
- Phlomis pallida Schumach. & Thonn.
L. nepetifolia (L.) W.T. Aiton var. nepetifolia
- Leonotis kwebensis N.E.Br.
- Leonotis ovata Bojer
- Stachys mediterranea Vell.
The common name Lion’s ear comes from the orange flowers which are borne in spiny clusters.
Distribution
Top of pageL. nepetifolia is indigenous to tropical and subtropical East Africa, as are the 30 other species in the genus. It is widely established across the tropics in Africa, South-east Asia, the Pacific islands, Australia, Central and South America, the southern USA, Mexico and the Caribbean islands.
L. nepetifolia has been a standard, easy to grow ornamental garden plant widely distributed across the world by European colonial expansion starting in the 17th century. The species is more widely distributed than indicated in the table section.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Jan 2020Risk of Introduction
Top of pageDeliberate introduction is limited to L. nepetifolia's use as a showy ornamental species for landscapes and gardens (Floridata, 2014); however, once in new territories it can easily expand its range.
Habitat
Top of pageL. nepetifolia is found in roadsides, overgrazed pastures, disturbed sites, waste areas, waterways and floodplains (Weeds of Australia, 2015). It is also found in savannah vegetation near creeklines in Western Australia (Weeds of Australia, 2015). In southern Africa it is present in mixed woodland, and along streambanks and roadsides (Bingham et al., 2013).
Habitat List
Top of page| Category | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
| Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Industrial / intensive livestock production systems | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
| Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
| Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
| Urban / peri-urban areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural | ||
| Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
2n = 24 (IPCN Chromosome Reports, 2015).
Reproductive Biology
L. nepetifolia reproduces by seed. Each seed pod contains four seeds (Weeds of Australia, 2015). Seeds may be spread by water, but "has no special adaptations to aid dispersal" (Gordon et al., 2011). Little is known about nectar dynamics and pollination, but as honeybees account for most visits to the flowers, it is possible that bees could be the major pollinator (Kulloli et al., 2011). L. nepetifolia is also a nectar source for three sunbird species in Africa: the Bronzy Sunbird, Nectarinia kilimensis, the Malachite Sunbird, N. famosa, and the Variable Sunbird, N. venusta (Gill and Wolf, 1979). L. nepetifolia is a nectar source for humming birds and bees in Mexico (Cruden, 1976).
Flowering in Australia occurs mostly from summer through to early winter (i.e. from December to July) (Weeds of Australia, 2015).
Physiology and Phenology
Fresh seeds of L. nepetifolia are dormant due to a water-soluble inhibitor in the seed coasts. Seeds do not germinate at 15-20°C, but about 100% germination is achieved at 28-32°C: the temperature requirements for germination therefore limit the distribution of this species (Lal and Ambasht, 1982).
Climate
Top of page| Climate | Status | Description | Remark |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
| Csa - Mediterranean climate | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers, warmest month average temp. > 22°C | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Rainfall
Top of page| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mean annual rainfall | 250 | 1600 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- medium
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageL. nepetifolia reproduces by seeds which are dispersed by water and by adhering to animals and machinery (Weeds of Australia, 2015).
Impact Summary
Top of page| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Human health | Positive |
Economic Impact
Top of pageL. nepetifolia can become a problem for cattle producers in northern Australia and may reduce the access to waterways for livestock, due to the spiky nature of the inflorescence (heads), and its presence along riverbanks (Weeds of Australia, 2015).
L. nepetifolia is an agricultural weed in both Australia and Mexico, especially in no-till systems, requiring control and management (Piedra-Ibarra et al., 2005; Concenço et al., 2011; Clarkson et al., 2012). It can be a serious weed of crops including rice and sugarcane in South America (Smith, 2002).
L. nepetifolia is a host for viruses: Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV), Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), a satellite RNA of CMV (CMV satRNA) and Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), and thus could represent a risk to cultivated plants (Piedra-Ibarra et al., 2005). It is also a host for Sphaceloma, which causes scab on cowpeas (Adebitan, 1998).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageL. nepetifolia can form dense stands along riverbanks and on floodplains, replacing indigenous species and altering the trophic levels and altering ecosystem services.
L. nepetifolia is listed as a possible threat to the endangered Hawaiian fern Marsilea villosa by Chau et al. (2013). In some survey years it was one of the most abundant species in plots where the fern was present. While Chau et al. say that the fern appeared to be resilient to L. nepetifolia invasion over the years of their study, they warn that L. nepetifolia has been documented as causing ecological harm in Hawaii and cannot be discounted as an individual species that could have significant effects on M. villosa growth.
Threatened Species
Top of page| Threatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marsilea villosa (villous waterclover) | No Details | Hawaii | Competition | Chau et al., 2013 |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has high genetic variability
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts forestry
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - smothering
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
Uses
Top of pageL. nepetifolia has been used to treat bronchial asthma, diarrhea, fever, influenza and malaria in India; the species is also reported as an analgesic and as exhibiting antifungal and antibacterial activities (Prakash et al., 2012; Dhawan et al., 2013; Maobe et al., 2013). Repeated applications can reduce excretion of the eggs of gastrointestinal parasites of goats (Mbanzamihigo et al., 2013).
A commercial website claims that the dried foliage of L. nepetifolia has psychoactive properties and is sometimes used as a substitute for marijuana; smoking the dried leaves gives a euphoric-like effect and a sense of exuberance (Jessurun, 2015).
Uses List
Top of pageDrugs, stimulants, social uses
- Narcotic
- Psychoactive
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageL. nepetifolia is similar to Leonotis leonurus; the two species are difficult to differentiate. The flowers of L. nepetifolia sprout from a round prickly ball. The lower leaves of L. nepetifolia are broader (2-15 cm wide) than those of L. leonurus (1-1.5 cm wide). The species is also relatively similar to Hyptis capitata, and Hyptis suaveolens. Notes on distinguishing features are given in Weeds of Australia (2015). L. nepetifolia differs from both species by its orange flowers borne in large globular clusters.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Picloram + triclopyr is recommended for chemical control in Australia (Clarkson et al., 2012). This Australian case study, however, highlights the difficulty of eradicating the species once established, as a review in 2010 of a control program which had been active for at least 17 years concluded that eradication was unlikely without modification to the existing approach to control.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2014. Flora of the West Indies website: Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Bingham MG; Willemen A; Wursten BT; Ballings P; Hyde MA, 2013. Flora of Zambia., Zambia: Flora of Zambia. http://www.zambiaflora.com/index.php
Chong KY; Tan HTW; Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore. National University of Singapore, Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, 273 pp.
Conabio, 2015. Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Brown. http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/lamiaceae/leonotis-nepetifolia/fichas/ficha.htm
Davidse G; Sousa Sánchez M; Knapp S; Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae. Flora Mesoamericana, 4:1-533.
Dhawan NG; Khan AS; Srivastava P, 2013. A General Appraisal of Leonotis nepetifolia (L) R. Br: An Essential Medicinal Plant. Bulletin of Environment, Pharmacology and Life Sciences, 2:118-121.
EDDMapS, 2013. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. USA: The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.eddmaps.org/
Flora of Central Africa, 2015. Flora of Central Africa. http://floreafriquecentrale.org
Florence J; Chevillotte H; Ollier C; Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Floridata, 2014. FLORIDATAbase website. Tallahassee, Florida, USA: Floridata.com. http://www.floridata.com/
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Gill FB; Wolf LL, 1979. Nectar loss by Golden Winged Sunbirds to competitors. The Auk: Ornithological Advances, 96:448-461.
HPWRA, 2015. HPWRA Assessment. Hawai'i Pacific Weed risk Assessment System. https://sites.google.com/site/weedriskassessment/home
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IPCN Chromosome Reports, 2015. Index to Plant Chromosome Numbers (IPCN), Tropicos website. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://tropicos.org/Project/IPCN
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PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Randall R, 2001. Leonotis nepetifolia: Risk assessment prepared for Australia. http://www.hear.org/pier/wra/australia/lenep-wra.htm
Reddy CS; Bagyanarayana G; Reddy KN; Raju VS, 2008. Invasive Alien Flora of India. Washington DC, USA: National Biological Information Infrastructure, US Geological Survey, 129 pp.
Reflora, 2013. Brazilian Flora Checklist (Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil). http://www.reflora.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/listaBrasil/PrincipalUC/PrincipalUC.do?lingua=en
Roux JP, 2003. Flora of South Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: South African National Biodiversity Institute, Compton Herbarium.
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2015. Kew Herbarium Catalogue. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://specimens.kew.org/herbarium/
SANBI, 2015. South African National Biodiversity Institute plant information website., South Africa: Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://pza.sanbi.org/
Smith NM, 2002. Weeds of the wet/dry tropics of Australia: a field guide. Darwin, Australia: Environment Centre NT, 112 pp.
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Distribution References
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2014. Flora of the West Indies website: Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies., Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Bingham MG, Willemen A, Wursten BT, Ballings P, Hyde MA, 2013. Flora of Zambia. In: Zambia: Flora of Zambia, Zambia: http://www.zambiaflora.com/index.php
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore., Singapore: National University of Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. 273 pp.
Conabio, 2015. Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Brown., http://www.conabio.gob.mx/malezasdemexico/lamiaceae/leonotis-nepetifolia/fichas/ficha.htm
Davidse G, Sousa Sánchez M, Knapp S, Chiang Cabrera F, 2012. (Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae). In: Flora Mesoamericana, 4 1-533.
EDDMapS, 2013. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System., USA: The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.eddmaps.org/
Flora of Central Africa, 2015. Flora of Central Africa., http://floreafriquecentrale.org
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Nadeaud botanical database of the Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., https://nadeaud.ilm.pf/
GBIF, 2015. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. http://www.gbif.org/species
Hyde MA, Wursten BT, Ballings P, Coates Palgrave M, 2015. Flora of Zimbabwe., http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/index.php
Hyde MA, Wursten BT, Ballings P, Coates Palgrave M, 2016. Flora of Mozambique., http://www.mozambiqueflora.com/index.php
Madagascar Catalogue, 2015. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Madagascar., St. Louis, Missouri; Antananarivo, USA;, Madagascar: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/project/mada
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database., St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
ORSTOM, 1988. List of vascular plants of Gabon.,
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Reddy CS, Bagyanarayana G, Reddy KN, Raju VS, 2008. Invasive Alien Flora of India., Washington DC, USA: National Biological Information Infrastructure, US Geological Survey. 129 pp.
Reflora, 2013. Brazilian Flora Checklist. (Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil. http://www.reflora.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/listaBrasil/PrincipalUC/PrincipalUC.do?lingua=en
Roux JP, 2003. Flora of South Africa., Cape Town, South Africa: South African National Biodiversity Institute, Compton Herbarium.
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2015. Kew Herbarium Catalogue., London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://specimens.kew.org/herbarium/
SANBI, 2015. South African National Biodiversity Institute plant information website., South Africa: Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://pza.sanbi.org/
Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, USDA Forest Service.
USDA-NRCS, 2015. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Links to Websites
Top of page| Website | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page26/04/15 Original text by:
John Peter Thompson, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH
Pedro Acevedo-Rodriguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH
Distribution Maps
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