Etlingera elatior
(torch ginger)

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Habit Caption Etlingera elatior (torch ginger); plants growing in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico Copyright ©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo	Habit	Etlingera elatior (torch ginger); plants growing in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico	©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo
Title Inflorescence Caption Etlingera elatior (torch ginger); inflorescence. Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. November, 2012. Copyright ©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo	Inflorescence	Etlingera elatior (torch ginger); inflorescence. Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. November, 2012.	©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo
Title Fruits Caption Etlingera elatior (torch ginger); fruits. Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. November 2012. Copyright ©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo	Fruits	Etlingera elatior (torch ginger); fruits. Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico. November 2012.	©Smithsonian Institution/Pedro Acevedo

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M.Sm.

Preferred Common Name

• torch ginger

Other Scientific Names

• Achasma yunnanensis T.L. Wu & S.J. Chen
• Alpinia acrostachya Steud.
• Alpinia elatior Jack
• Alpinia magnifica Roscoe
• Alpinia speciosa (Blume) D.Dietr.
• Amomum magnificum (Roscoe) Benth. & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks.
• Amomum tridentatum (Kuntze) K.Schum.
• Bojeria magnifica (Roscoe) Raf.
• Cardamomum magnificum (Roscoe) Kuntze
• Cardamomum speciosum (Blume) Kuntze
• Cardamomum tridentatum Kuntze
• Diracodes javanica Blume
• Elettaria speciosa Blume
• Nicolaia elatior (Jack) Horan.
• Nicolaia imperialis Horan.
• Nicolaia intermedia Valeton
• Nicolaia magnifica (Roscoe) K.Schum. ex Valeton
• Nicolaia speciosa (Blume) Horan.
• Phaeomeria magnifica (Roscoe) K.Schum.
• Phaeomeria speciosa (Blume) Koord.

International Common Names

• English: Philippine waxflower; torch-ginger; wax-flower
• Spanish: boca de dragón; flor de cera
• Chinese: huo ju jiang

Local Common Names

• Colombia: bastón del Obispo; bastón del rey; heliconia bastón
• Costa Rica: bastón de emperador
• French Polynesia: 'awapuhi; opuhi
• French Polynesia/Marquesas: eka; pua vao
• Indonesia: bunga kecombrang; honge; kecombrang
• Malaysia: bunda kantan; kantan
• Puerto Rico: antorcha
• USA/Hawaii: ‘awapuhi ko‘oko‘o

Summary of Invasiveness

E. elatior is a fast-growing perennial herb that has been actively introduced as an ornamental throughout the tropics (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005). E. elatior is included in the Global Compendium of Weeds where it listed as naturalized and invasive in China, Costa Rica and Hawaii (Wagner et al., 1999; Weber et al., 2008; Chacon and Saborio, 2012; Randall, 2012). It spreads by seeds and by rhizome division and has the potential to grow forming dense thickets principally in moist habitats (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Abdelmageed et al., 2011). E. elatior is able to grow in shaded areas beneath the canopy of mature forests, and in the Pacific wet forests of Costa Rica (i.e., Golfo Dulce and Golfito) it is invading relatively unaltered native forests (Hammel et al., 2003; Chacon, 2009).

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Monocotyledonae
•                     Order: Zingiberales
•                         Family: Zingiberaceae
•                             Genus: Etlingera
•                                 Species: Etlingera elatior

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The family Zingiberaceae, with more than 1200 species, is the largest of eight families included in the order Zingiberales (Kress, 1990; Kress et al., 2002; Stevens, 2012). The ginger family has a pantropical distribution, with a centre of diversity in the Malesian biogeographic region (Kress, 1990; Kress et al., 2002; Stevens, 2012). The genus Etlingera includes approximately 110 species distributed in tropical and subtropical Indo-Malesia and tropical Australia (Stevens, 2012).

E. elatior is one of the species most commercialized as an ornamental in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). Several forms of E. elatior have been observed in the wild and in cultivation. The forms with pink involucral bracts are normally consumed as a spice. The forms with red or deep red bracts and leaves that are permanently purplish underneath, are more commonly used as an ornamental or as cut flowers, although the pink-bracted ones are equally popular. The white-bracted form is very rare and occurs in the wild. There are two flower types, one with a white-edged labellum (the cultivated ones) and the other with a yellow-edged labellum which is considered the wild type (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999).

Description

E. elatior is a coarse herb often growing in large colonies. Pseudostems (shoots) 3-6 m tall. Leaves numerous; ligule to 1.5 cm long, shortly 2-lobed, glabrous; petiole 1.5-4 cm long; leaf blades lanceolate, 38-85 × 8-18 cm, glabrous. Inflorescence a terminal, ovoid head of spirally imbricated flowers, surrounded at base by showy involucral bracts; peduncle 60-150 × 0.8-1.5 cm, clothed with green, glabrous sheaths; involucral bracts 3-6 × 2-3 cm, spreading, the upper obtuse to emarginate, the lower abruptly narrowed to a caudate tip, crimson-pink, glabrous; floral bracts similar to involucral bracts but pinkish, smaller; bracteoles tubular, approximately 2 cm long, unilaterally split; calyx 3-4 cm long, unilaterally split, the apex 3- toothed; corolla pink to red, sometimes white; labellum deep crimson with white or yellow margin; filament short, flat, whitish pubescent; anther red, longer than filament. Fruiting head greenish or reddish, globose, 2-2.5 cm in diameter, short-pubescent; seeds many, black (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005).

Plant Type

Distribution

E. elatior is native to Indonesia, Malesia, and southern Thailand. However, this species is widely cultivated and can be found naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide (see distribution table for details; Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Acevedo and Strong, 2005).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

History of Introduction and Spread

E. elatior has been actively introduced as an ornamental in gardens and yards throughout the tropics (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). In tropical America, it is often commercialized as a cut-flower and hedge plant (Chacon, 2009). The date of introduction of E. elatior in America is uncertain. It was probably introduced during the last century from Malaysia and Indonesia (Java, Sumatra; Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). E. elatior is reported in herbarium collections made in 1970 in Panama, and in the 1980s in Costa Rica, El Salvador and Puerto Rico (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014).

Risk of Introduction

The risk of introduction of E. elatior is high. The species and many cultivars are widely commercialized as ornamentals in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Because the species spreads by seeds and rhizome fragments, the potential to colonize new habitats is high. It has the potential to colonize shaded habitats and relatively unaltered forests (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Chacon, 2009; Sakai et al., 2013).

Habitat

E. elatior grows in primary and secondary forest, forest edges, disturbed areas and secondary vegetation near villages and along roadsides (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Hammel et al., 2003; Chacon, 2009; Sakai et al., 2013).

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

The chromosome number reported for E. elatior varies from 2n = 48 to 2n = 50 (Eksomtramage et al., 2002). 

Reproductive Biology

E. elatior produces strongly zygomorphic animal-pollinated flowers. Within its native distribution range (i.e., Borneo and Malesia) this species is visited by the small spider-hunter (Arachnothera longirostra) and by the sunbird Anthreptes malacensis (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Sakai et al., 2013). In Thailand, E. elatior is visited by birds of the Nectariniidae family and by butterflies (Kittipanangkul and Ngamriabsakul, 2006). 

Physiology and Phenology

E. elatior starts flowering in the second year after planting a piece of rhizome. Flowering occurs throughout the year and continuous harvesting is possible (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). 

Environmental Requirements

E. elatior occurs mainly at lower elevations in wet and moist habitats in tropical and subtropical regions. It grows best at mean annual temperatures ranging from 10°C to 35°C. It is tolerant to acid soils and shaded conditions and has a medium drought tolerance (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Hammel et al., 2003; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014). E. elatior can become very robust when it is planted in moist, relatively shaded locations, preferably near pools, streams or drains (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999).

Climate

Air Temperature

Soil Tolerances

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• medium

Notes on Natural Enemies

Zingiberaceae plants are frequently infected with pathogens such as rhizome rot caused by Phythium species and leaf spot due to Colletotrichum species (Keng and Hing, 2004).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

E. elatior spreads by seeds and vegetatively by rhizomes. In cultivation, it is propagated primarily by rhizome fragments (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). It produces fleshy fruits facilitating its dispersal by animals including birds, bats, ants and rodents (PROTA, 2014).

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Environmental Impact

E. elatior is listed as invasive in China, Costa Rica, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Wagner et al., 1999; Weber et al., 2008; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Chacon and Saborio, 2012; Randall, 2012). This species has the potential to grow forming dense thickets and to outcompete native vegetation. It is also able to invade shaded areas beneath the canopy of primary and secondary forests including areas in relatively unaltered native forests (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Hammel et al., 2003; Chacon, 2009).

Risk and Impact Factors

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Tolerant of shade
• Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
• Long lived
• Fast growing
• Reproduces asexually

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Monoculture formation
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Rapid growth
• Rooting

• Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

E. elatior is commonly planted as an ornamental and hedge plant. It is also cultivated on a commercial scale as a cut-flower in Hawaii and Australia (Wagner et al., 1999; Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). In Southeast Asia, flowers, fruits, and young and tight buds are consumed by humans as spice in curries, fish soups, stir-fried vegetables and salads. In Malaysia E. elatior is used for flavouring 'laksa' (a special noodle dish) and many other local dishes. In southeastern Asia, it is also used in traditional medicine. A decoction of its fruit is traditionally used to treat earache while a decoction of the leaves may be applied for cleansing wounds. The stem is made into matting in Sumatra. The stems also have potential as raw material for the manufacture of paper. The rhizome is reported to yield a yellow dye (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999).

The essential oils of E. elatior were analysed by Jaafar et al. (2007) and by Zoghbi and Andrade (2005). Antioxidative constituents were determined by Mohamed et al. (2005) and Chan et al. (2007), while antimicrobial activity is reported by Mackeen et al. (1997) and Chan et al. (2007).

Uses List

Environmental

• Amenity

General

• Botanical garden/zoo

Human food and beverage

• Food additive
• Fruits
• Root crop
• Seeds

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
• Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

• Cut flower
• Propagation material

References

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Chan EWC; Lim YY; Mohammed Omar, 2007. Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of leaves of Etlingera species (Zingiberaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia. Food Chemistry, 104(4):1586-1593. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03088146

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Habsah Mohamad; Lajis NH; Faridah Abas; Abdul Manaf Ali; Mohamad Aspollah Sukari; Kikuzaki H; Nakatani N, 2005. Antioxidative constituents of Etlingera elatior. Journal of Natural Products, 68(2):285-288.

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Zoghbi MDG; Andrade EH, 2005. Volatiles of the Etlingera elatior and Zingiber spectabile: two Zingiberaceae cultivated in the Amazon. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 17:209-211.

Links to Websites

Contributors

24/02/14 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Distribution Maps