Etlingera elatior (torch ginger)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M.Sm.
Preferred Common Name
- torch ginger
Other Scientific Names
- Achasma yunnanensis T.L. Wu & S.J. Chen
- Alpinia acrostachya Steud.
- Alpinia elatior Jack
- Alpinia magnifica Roscoe
- Alpinia speciosa (Blume) D.Dietr.
- Amomum magnificum (Roscoe) Benth. & Hook.f. ex B.D.Jacks.
- Amomum tridentatum (Kuntze) K.Schum.
- Bojeria magnifica (Roscoe) Raf.
- Cardamomum magnificum (Roscoe) Kuntze
- Cardamomum speciosum (Blume) Kuntze
- Cardamomum tridentatum Kuntze
- Diracodes javanica Blume
- Elettaria speciosa Blume
- Nicolaia elatior (Jack) Horan.
- Nicolaia imperialis Horan.
- Nicolaia intermedia Valeton
- Nicolaia magnifica (Roscoe) K.Schum. ex Valeton
- Nicolaia speciosa (Blume) Horan.
- Phaeomeria magnifica (Roscoe) K.Schum.
- Phaeomeria speciosa (Blume) Koord.
International Common Names
- English: Philippine waxflower; torch-ginger; wax-flower
- Spanish: boca de dragón; flor de cera
- Chinese: huo ju jiang
Local Common Names
- Colombia: bastón del Obispo; bastón del rey; heliconia bastón
- Costa Rica: bastón de emperador
- French Polynesia: 'awapuhi; opuhi
- French Polynesia/Marquesas: eka; pua vao
- Indonesia: bunga kecombrang; honge; kecombrang
- Malaysia: bunda kantan; kantan
- Puerto Rico: antorcha
- USA/Hawaii: ‘awapuhi ko‘oko‘o
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageE. elatior is a fast-growing perennial herb that has been actively introduced as an ornamental throughout the tropics (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005). E. elatior is included in the Global Compendium of Weeds where it listed as naturalized and invasive in China, Costa Rica and Hawaii (Wagner et al., 1999; Weber et al., 2008; Chacon and Saborio, 2012; Randall, 2012). It spreads by seeds and by rhizome division and has the potential to grow forming dense thickets principally in moist habitats (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Abdelmageed et al., 2011). E. elatior is able to grow in shaded areas beneath the canopy of mature forests, and in the Pacific wet forests of Costa Rica (i.e., Golfo Dulce and Golfito) it is invading relatively unaltered native forests (Hammel et al., 2003; Chacon, 2009).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Zingiberales
- Family: Zingiberaceae
- Genus: Etlingera
- Species: Etlingera elatior
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of page
The family Zingiberaceae, with more than 1200 species, is the largest of eight families included in the order Zingiberales (Kress, 1990; Kress et al., 2002; Stevens, 2012). The ginger family has a pantropical distribution, with a centre of diversity in the Malesian biogeographic region (Kress, 1990; Kress et al., 2002; Stevens, 2012). The genus Etlingera includes approximately 110 species distributed in tropical and subtropical Indo-Malesia and tropical Australia (Stevens, 2012).
E. elatior is one of the species most commercialized as an ornamental in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). Several forms of E. elatior have been observed in the wild and in cultivation. The forms with pink involucral bracts are normally consumed as a spice. The forms with red or deep red bracts and leaves that are permanently purplish underneath, are more commonly used as an ornamental or as cut flowers, although the pink-bracted ones are equally popular. The white-bracted form is very rare and occurs in the wild. There are two flower types, one with a white-edged labellum (the cultivated ones) and the other with a yellow-edged labellum which is considered the wild type (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999).
Description
Top of pageE. elatior is a coarse herb often growing in large colonies. Pseudostems (shoots) 3–6 m tall. Leaves numerous; ligule to 1.5 cm long, shortly 2-lobed, glabrous; petiole 1.5–4 cm long; leaf blades lanceolate, 38–85 x 8–18 cm, glabrous. Inflorescence a terminal, ovoid head of spirally imbricated flowers, surrounded at base by showy involucral bracts; peduncle 60–150 x 0.8–1.5 cm, clothed with green, glabrous sheaths; involucral bracts 3–6 x 2–3 cm, spreading, the upper obtuse to emarginate, the lower abruptly narrowed to a caudate tip, crimson-pink, glabrous; floral bracts similar to involucral bracts but pinkish, smaller; bracteoles tubular, approximately 2 cm long, unilaterally split; calyx 3–4 cm long, unilaterally split, the apex 3-toothed; corolla pink to red, sometimes white; labellum deep crimson with white or yellow margin; filament short, flat, whitish pubescent; anther red, longer than filament. Fruiting head greenish or reddish, globose, 2–2.5 cm in diameter, short-pubescent; seeds many, black (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005).
Distribution
Top of pageE. elatior is native to Indonesia, Malesia, and southern Thailand. It is distributed throughout South-east Asia, New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Philippines, Australia (Queensland) and Polynesia (Ravindran, 2017). However, the species is widely cultivated and can be found naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Acevedo and Strong, 2005).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Jan 2020Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | Reported only in cultivated areas | ||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | Reported only in cultivated areas | ||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Reported only in cultivated areas | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
China | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Possibly naturalized | |||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | |||||
-Java | Present | Native | |||||
-Lesser Sunda Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maluku Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sulawesi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Native | |||||
Laos | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | ||||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageE. elatior has been actively introduced as an ornamental in gardens and yards throughout the tropics (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). In tropical America, it is often commercialized as a cut-flower and hedge plant (Chacon, 2009). The date of introduction of E. elatior in America is uncertain. It was probably introduced during the last century from Malaysia and Indonesia (Java, Sumatra; Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). E. elatior is reported in herbarium collections made in 1970 in Panama, and in the 1980s in Costa Rica, El Salvador and Puerto Rico (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of E. elatior is high. The species and many cultivars are widely commercialized as ornamentals in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Because the species spreads by seeds and rhizome fragments, the potential to colonize new habitats is high. It has the potential to colonize shaded habitats and relatively unaltered forests (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Chacon, 2009; Sakai et al., 2013).
Habitat
Top of pageE. elatior grows in primary and secondary forest, forest edges, disturbed areas and secondary vegetation near villages and along roadsides (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Hammel et al., 2003; Chacon, 2009; Sakai et al., 2013).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for E. elatior varies from 2n = 48 to 2n = 50 (Eksomtramage et al., 2002).
Reproductive Biology
E. elatior produces strongly zygomorphic animal-pollinated flowers. Within its native distribution range (i.e., Borneo and Malesia) this species is visited by the small spider-hunter (Arachnothera longirostra) and by the sunbird Anthreptes malacensis (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Sakai et al., 2013). In Thailand, E. elatior is visited by birds of the Nectariniidae family and by butterflies (Kittipanangkul and Ngamriabsakul, 2006).
Physiology and Phenology
E. elatior starts flowering in the second year after planting a piece of rhizome. Flowering occurs throughout the year and continuous harvesting is possible (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999).
Environmental Requirements
E. elatior occurs mainly at lower elevations in wet and moist habitats in tropical and subtropical regions. It grows best at mean annual temperatures ranging from 10°C to 35°C. It is tolerant to acid soils and shaded conditions and has a medium drought tolerance (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Hammel et al., 2003; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014). E. elatior can become very robust when it is planted in moist, relatively shaded locations, preferably near pools, streams or drains (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageZingiberaceae plants are frequently infected with pathogens such as rhizome rot caused by Phythium species and leaf spot due to Colletotrichum species (Keng and Hing, 2004).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageE. elatior spreads by seeds and vegetatively by rhizomes. In cultivation, it is propagated primarily by rhizome fragments (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). It produces fleshy fruits facilitating its dispersal by animals including birds, bats, ants and rodents (PROTA, 2014).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Widely cultivated as ornamental | Yes | Yes | Ibrahim and Setyowati (1999) |
Cut flower trade | Widely cultivated as ornamental | Yes | Yes | Ibrahim and Setyowati (1999) |
Food | Fruits are consumed by humans | Yes | Yes | Ibrahim and Setyowati (1999) |
Hedges and windbreaks | Yes | Hammel et al. (2003) | ||
Medicinal use | Plants used in traditional medicine mainly in Asia | Yes | Jackie et al. (2011) | |
Nursery trade | Widely commercialized | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2014) |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | Sakai et al. (2013) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Host and vector organisms | Seeds can be dispersed by ants, birds, bats, and rodents | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2014) |
Seeds sold online | Yes | Yes | PROTA (2014) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageE. elatior is listed as invasive in China, Costa Rica, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Wagner et al., 1999; Weber et al., 2008; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Chacon and Saborio, 2012; Randall, 2012). This species has the potential to grow forming dense thickets and to outcompete native vegetation. It is also able to invade shaded areas beneath the canopy of primary and secondary forests including areas in relatively unaltered native forests (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999; Hammel et al., 2003; Chacon, 2009).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Tolerant of shade
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageIn Southeast Asia, flowers, fruits, and young and tight buds are consumed by humans as spice in curries, fish soups, stir-fried vegetables and salads. The fruit is very sour but edible, and can be used in cooking. Less commonly, the hearts of young vegetative shoots are used for flavouring dishes or eaten raw with rice. Ripe fruits can be eaten raw or processed into sweets (Ravindran, 2017). In Malaysia E. elatior is used for flavouring 'laksa' (a special noodle dish) and many other local dishes.
E. elatior is commonly planted as an ornamental and hedge plant. It is also cultivated on a commercial scale as a cut-flower in Hawaii and Australia (Wagner et al., 1999; Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999). Its value in the temperate regions of the world is only as an ornamental for planting, mostly as a backdrop for lawns and smaller flowering ornamentals. The flower heads shoot up straight from the ground and the fiery bright pink floral heads look like flaming torches, hence the name torch ginger (Kinsey, 2015).
In southeastern Asia, it is used in traditional medicine. Decoctions of its fruit and the leaves are used to treat earache and applied to cleanse wounds, respectively. Traditionally it is believed that a daily intake of the raw inflorescence can reduce diabetes and hypertension (Wijekoon et al., 2011). The stem is made into matting in Sumatra. The stems also have potential as raw material for the manufacture of paper (Ravindran, 2017). The rhizome is reported to yield a yellow dye (Ibrahim and Setyowati, 1999).
The essential oils of E. elatior were analysed by Jaafar et al. (2007) and by Zoghbi and Andrade (2005). Antioxidative constituents were determined by Mohamed et al. (2005) and Chan et al. (2007), while antimicrobial activity is reported by Mackeen et al. (1997) and Chan et al. (2007).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
Human food and beverage
- Food additive
- Fruits
- Root crop
- Seeds
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Cut flower
- Propagation material
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2005. Monocots and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 52:1-416. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/PRFlora/monocots/
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Chacon E, 2009. [English title not available]. (Las plantas invasoras en Costa Rica: Cuáles acciones debemos realizar?.) Revista Biocenosis, 22:31-33
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica ([English title not available]). San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama.), Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 599 pp
Eksomtramage L, Sirirugsa P, Jivanit P, Maknoi C, 2002. Chromosome counts of some zingiberaceous species from Thailand. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology, 24:311-319
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Fosberg FR, Sachet M-H, Oliver R, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. Micronesia 20: 1-2, 19-129
Govaerts R, 2014. World Checklist of Zingiberaceae. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Hammel BE, Grayum MH, Herrera C, Zamora N, 2003. Manual of plants of Costa Rica. Vol. III. (Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica. Vol. III.) Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, 93:1-884
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Allertonia:146 pp
Ibrahim H, Setyowati FM, 1999. Etlingera. In: Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 13: Spices. Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys Publisher, 123-126
Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz RDC, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. Flora of Antioquia. (Flora de Antioquia.) Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, vol. 2. Listado de las Plantas Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia:939 pp
Jaafar FM, Osman CP, Ismail NH, Awang K, 2007. Analysis of essential oils of leaves, stems, flowers and rhizomes of Etlingera elatior (Jack) RM Smith. The Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 11:269-273
Jackie T, Haleagrahara N, Chakravarthi S, 2011. Antioxidant effects of Etlingera elatior flower extract against lead acetate-induced perturbations in free radical scavenging enzymes and lipid peroxidation in rats. BMC Research Notes, 4:67
Keng CL, Hing TW, 2004. In vitro propagation of Zingiberaceae species with medicinal properties. Journal of Plant Biotechnology, 6:181-188
Kinsey B, 2015. Etlingera elatior – Torch Ginger, Hawaiian Plants and Tropical Flowers: A Guide to the Flowers and Plants of Hawaii. http://wildlifeofhawaii.com/flowers/971/etlingera-elatior-torch-ginger/
Kittipanangkul N, Ngamriabsakul C, 2006. Pollen and pollinator limitation of seed initiation in Etlingera littoralis (Zingiberaceae) in Klong Klai Basin, Khao Nan National Park, Thailand. Walailak Journal of Science and Technology, 3:207-2017
Kress WJ, 1990. The phylogeny and classification of the Zingiberales. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 77:698-721
McCormack G, 2013. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database. Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/search.asp
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2014. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Pauwels L, 2005. Cultivated and/or Exotic Plants in Central Africa (provisional list of R. Congo - Rwanda - Burundi). http://users.chello.be/cr28796/CultAfrC.htm
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2014. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Volume I. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 494 pp
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392:1-223
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Wijekoon JOMM, Karim AA, Bhat R, 2011. (Etlingera elatior Jack) inflorescence. International Food Research Journal , (18), 1415-1420.
Wu TL, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised):384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php
Zoghbi MDG, Andrade EH, 2005. Volatiles of the Etlingera elatior and Zingiber spectabile: two Zingiberaceae cultivated in the Amazon. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 17:209-211
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. [English title not available]. (Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica)., San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Correa A, Galdames MDC, Stapf MNS, 2004. Catalogue of vascular plants of Panama. (Catalogo de Plantas Vasculares de Panama)., Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. 599 pp.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Fosberg FR, Sachet M-H, Oliver R, 1987. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian monocotyledonae. In: Micronesia, 20 1-2, 19-129.
Govaerts R, 2014. World Checklist of Zingiberaceae., London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. In: Allertonia, 146 pp.
Idárraga-Piedrahita A, Ortiz RDC, Callejas Posada R, Merello M, 2011. Flora of Antioquia. (Flora de Antioquia). In: Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, 2 Listado de las Plantas Vasculares del Departamento de Antioquia. 939 pp.
Pauwels L, 2005. Cultivated and/or Exotic Plants in Central Africa (provisional list of R. Congo - Rwanda - Burundi)., http://users.chello.be/cr28796/CultAfrC.htm
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji., I Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 494 pp.
Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 1-223.
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Wu TL, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. In: Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised), 384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Plant Resources of South-East Asia | http://proseanet.org/prosea/ | |
PROTA: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa | http://www.prota4u.org/ |
Contributors
Top of page24/02/14 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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