Desmodium incanum (creeping beggerweed)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Natural Food Sources
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Diagnosis
- Detection and Inspection
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Desmodium incanum DC.
Preferred Common Name
- creeping beggerweed
Other Scientific Names
- Aeschynomene incana (SW.) G. Mey.
- Aeschynomene spicata Poir.
- Desmodium canum (J.F. Gmel.) Schinz & Thell.
- Desmodium frutescens Schindl.
- Desmodium frutescens var. amblyophyllum (Urb.) Schindl.
- Desmodium incanum var. supinum (DC.) Hooker & Arnott
- Desmodium portoricense (Spreng.) G.Don
- Desmodium supinum (Sw.) DC.
- Desmodium supinum var. amblyophyllum Urb.
- Hedysarum canescens Mill.
- Hedysarum canum J.F. Gmel.
- Hedysarum incanum Sw.
- Hedysarum racemiferum J.F. Gmel.
- Hedysarum racemosum Aubl.
- Hedysarum supinum Sw.
- Meibomia adscendens var. incana (Sw.) Kuntze
- Meibomia cana S. F. Blake
- Meibomia incana (Sw.) Vail
- Meibomia supina (Sw.) Britton
International Common Names
- English: beggar's lice; creeping beggarweed; kaimi-clover; Spanish clover; tick trefoil; wild peanut; zarzabacoa comun
- Spanish: pega-pega; zarzabacoa comun
- French: colle-colle; gros treff; gros trefle; herb gallon; pois madame
- Portuguese: amor-de-campo; carrapicho-beico-de-boi; pega-pega
Local Common Names
- Cook Islands: piripiri
- Dominican Republic: amor seco
- Lesser Antilles: sweethearts
- Madagascar: famalakantsy; pelatsifotra; savisaha; tialamba
- Marshall Islands: lattil pako
- USA/Hawaii: ka'imi
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageOriginally from New World tropics and subtropics, D. incanum is a perennial shrub that was promoted as a forage crop around the world, with further accidental spread. Although it has some value as forage, it is no longer highly regarded. Its main value lies in its nitrogen-fixing ability (for intercropping). D. incanum is regarded as weedy both within and outside of its native range. It occupies roadsides, rough places, pastures, unplanted grasslands, volcanic soils and in dry to wet areas with low stature vegetation. It is an occasional problem in coffee, banana and rice crops. D. incanum is able to withstand and thrive with frequent herbicidal treatments, grazing, cultivation and fire. Its dispersal is mediated by sticky seeds, which can adhere to people, animals and machinery, making it a nuisance. It is able to compete and persist well with other dominant grasses, including invasive ones. Its spreading (scrambly) low stature habit helps it to both dominate other low vegetation and to persist within it. It could also carry pests and diseases of legume crops such as peanut.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Desmodium
- Species: Desmodium incanum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe most commonly used synonym in the literature is Desmodiumcanum but this was the result of the incorrect use of an illegitimate basionym (Nicolson, 1978). Sometimes the authority for D. incanum is given as (Sw.) DC, but this is also incorrect. That name refers to a different taxon which is either Desmodium mauritianum (ILDIS, 2013) or Desmodium ramosissimum; these being synonyms of each other.
Desmodium comes from the Greek word desmos which means a bond or chain. Kaimi (correctly Ka’imi) clover, the Hawaiian name for the plant, means 'seeker'. The other English names, which refer to lice and ticks, relate to the sticky seeds that stick to clothes and pets like those pests. The number of common names for the plant in Madagascar implies that it is a common, well-known plant there (ILDIS, 2013).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from Wagner et al. (1999):
Prostrate, ascending, or erect subshrubs or shrubs up to 1 m tall; stems pubescent with spreading hooked and longer straight hairs, glabrate. Leaves trifoliolate, leaflets subcoriaceous, usually elliptic or narrowly elliptic, terminal one 4-9 cm long, 1.5-4.5 cm wide, lateral nerves conspicuous, upper surface with minute hooked and straight hairs, lower surface densely appressed pubescent, apex obtuse or often acute, petioles 1-4 cm long. Flowers numerous in racemose inflorescences 5-12 cm long, rachis densely pubescent with minute hooked hairs, pedicels 3-10 mm long, persistent after articles fall, pubescent with minute hooked hairs; corolla pink to purplish, 5-6 mm long. Pods stipitate, (3) 4-5 (-8)-jointed, (2-) 2.5-3 (-4) cm long, densely pubescent with hooked hairs, articles nearly semicircular, 4-5 mm long, ca. 3 mm wide.
The following description is from Acevedo-Rodríguez (2005):
Decumbent or scandent herb, much branched from the woody base, attaining 1-1.5 m in length. Stems more or less cylindrical, appressed pubescent or pilose, glabrescent with age. Leaves alternate, trifoliolate; leaflets 3-9 × 0.8-3.8 cm, elliptical, oblong, ovate, lanceolate, or exceptionally rounded, chartaceous, involute, the apex obtuse or acute, mucronate, the base obtuse or rounded, the margins entire; upper surface dark green, puberulent; lower surface grayish green, strigulose, with prominent venation; petiolules 1.5-3 mm long, pilose; petioles 0.7-3 cm long, pilose, canaliculate; rachis 3-10 mm long, pilose, canaliculate; stipules ovate to lanceolate, 6-10 mm long, persistent; stipels minute, subulate. Inflorescences of terminal pseudoracemes, 10-18 cm long, pubescent; bracts minute, persistent. Calyx green, campanulate, 2.5-3 mm long, strigulose; corolla pink or pink-violet, the standard ovate, 5-6 mm long, retuse, unguiculate at the base, the wings and the keel as long as the standard. Legume uncinate-pubescent, 2-4 cm long, crenate on the ventral suture, with 5-8 fertile segments. Seeds 2.5-3.5 mm long, oblong elliptical, light brown.
Distribution
Top of pageD. incanum is native to Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and South America. Some accounts report that the species is native in Florida and Texas (Green et al., 2008; ILDIS, 2013), although important databases with expert input for the flora regard it as introduced (Wunderlin and Hansen, 2012; USDA-NRCS, 2013). It is not clear whether the plant is native in Galapagos (Simbaña and Tye, 2009).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Madagascar | Present | ||||||
Mali | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Aldabra Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Wild in Japan | |||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
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Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | |||||
Barbados | Present | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Cuba | Present | Native | |||||
Curaçao | Present | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Grenada | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Native | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Mexico | Present | ||||||
Montserrat | Present | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Panama | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Native | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | ||||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Native | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Throughout | |||
-Georgia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Southern coast, two counties | |||
-Hawaii | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | All main islands except Kahoolawe | |||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | Showed potential as fodder plant | ||||
-Texas | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Limited distribution | |||
Oceania |
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American Samoa | Present | ||||||
Australia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Queensland | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Spreading from small plantings | |||
Cook Islands | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | A very widespread, strong-stemmed creeping weed. A very persistent and difficult to control weed of gardens and horticultural plots | |||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Cultivated and invasive | |||
French Polynesia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kiribati | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | Limited, on Tarawa | |||
Marshall Islands | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Niue | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Space et al. (2004) | |||
Norfolk Island | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Widespread weed of pastures and rough land | |||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Low risk or only of agricultural concern | |||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | |||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Adventive | |||
South America |
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Argentina | Present | ||||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Maranhao | Present, Widespread | Native | Invasive | Weed of rice fields | |||
-Mato Grosso | Present, Widespread | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present, Widespread | Native | Invasive | kno | |||
-Para | Present, Localized | Native | Invasive | Weed | |||
-Parana | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
Colombia | Present | Native | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Native | Mainland and Galapagos | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | Common in sown pasture | ||||
Peru | Present | Native | |||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Uruguay | Present, Widespread | Native | Invasive | Increased in abundance after herbicide applied | |||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageThe timing of the spread of the plant in the tropics including most oceanic islands is unclear. For a short period during the twentieth century it was promoted as a forage plant and may have been intentionally planted, but its use and promotion has diminished since (Jones and Bunch, 2003; ILDIS, 2013). With its seeds being such able hitchhikers on clothes, socks, legs, shoes, shoe-laces, animals, pets and livestock, in most case it is likely to have spread accidentally.
D. incanum was first noted on Round Island, Mauritius, in 1987, and was probably introduced during invasive animal and plant management efforts (C. Griffiths, University of Bristol, UK, personal communication, 2013; Griffiths et al., 2013). Today it is prolific and widespread on Round Island. Both the Aldabran giant and Radiata tortoises consume large quantities of this legume, and as a result it has changed its growth form, becoming more prostrate (and possibly occupying more space). Seed productivity, however, has fallen where tortoises continually graze this species (C. Griffiths, University of Bristol, UK, personal communication, 2013).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Mauritius | Mauritius | 1987 | Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Yes | No | Griffiths et al. (2013) | Introduced by conservation management activities (Mauritius to Round island, Mauritius). |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageD. incanum is mostly spread via its sticky seeds and could easily be transported anywhere on people, camping equipment, pets, vehicles etc. It is known to be transported to new sites by conservation workers, for example on helicopter landing zones in relatively intact forest sites in Hawaii (Forest Starr, Starr Environmental, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013) and during invasive mammal eradication efforts on Round Island, Mauritius in 1987 (Griffiths et al., 2013). Spread via wool fleeces, hides or other animal products, is also possible.
Habitat
Top of pageD. incanum is known to occur in disturbed places on both inhabited and uninhabited islands of the Pacific (Whistler, 1998; Starr and Starr, 2006; Starr et al., 2006; US Forest Service, 2014). It tends to grow alongside trails and fence lines, but does not do well under the forest canopy (J. Beachy and S. Kaye, Big Island Invasive Species Committee, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013).
The plant occurs in important habitats in Florida, including pine rockland (Green et al., 2008), dry prairies (Orzell and Bridges, 2006), Cedar Key State Reserve (Amoroso and Judd, 1995) and in various protected areas (e.g. Hubbard and Judd, 2013) including the Castillo de San Marcos National Monument (Zomlefer and Giannasi, 2005). It is a significant weed along roads, trails and disturbed areas in Guana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve (E. Montgomery, Hawaii Invasive Species Council, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Industrial / intensive livestock production systems | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Industrial / intensive livestock production systems | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Buildings | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Buildings | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Principal habitat | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageBanana, rice and pastures are the main crops for which D. incanum is a recognized weed. However, this species is usually one of a suite of problematic species rather than a principal problem (Bergin, 2003; Jones and Bunch, 2003; Isaac et al., 2007; Guglieri-Caporal et al., 2010; Mesquita et al., 2013).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee) | Rubiaceae | Main | |
Musa (banana) | Musaceae | Main | |
Oryza (rice (generic level)) | Poaceae | Main | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
Poaceae (grasses) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number is 2n = 22 (Young, 1940; Schifino-Wittmann, 2000). Hybrids with Desmodium uncinatum are possible (Chow and Crowder, 1973), but it is unclear whether they occur in the wild.
Reproductive biology
The plant is commonly pollinated by bees (or other generalist pollinators) and via self-fertilisation (Etcheverry et al., 2010). Flowers are diurnal and triggered explosively by tension created in the keel and wings of the flower. After the initial visit most of the pollen is released and few visits from bees are likely again (Alemán et al., 2014). Anthers of D. incanum dehisce in the mid-afternoon, with 14-15.2 hours of light in the glasshouse, and flowers can be tripped by insect pollinators. Even in the absence of pollinators, seed set can exceed 50% (Chow and Crowder, 1974). Reproduction is often via seeds, and dispersal via the stick tight adherence provided by its hairy Velcro-like seed pods (Mori and Brown, 1998). The plant can root from stems, and fragments of the tap root can resprout (University of Florida Nassau County Extension, 2013).
Chemical and mechanical scarification and heating of seeds improves germination rates which were about 25% in one study (Franke and Baseggio, 1998).
Physiology and phenology
In warm tropical areas, D. incanum flowers and fruits all year round. Elsewhere in subtropical to temperate sites it may flower and fruit only in the warm season. Under high levels of herbivory it can adopt a more spreading prostate habit (C. Griffiths, University of Bristol, UK, personal communication, 2013).
Associations
D. incanum has symbiotic associations with root-nodulating nitrogen-fixing rhizobial bacteria Bradyrhizobium elkanii (Kuykendall et al., 1992; Menna et al., 2006; 2009).
Environmental requirements
D. incanum does not tolerate long periods of wet conditions, preferring well-drained soils, and can withstand fairly arid conditions. It is often regarded as a poor competitor, except under disturbed conditions with high light levels.
Natural Food Sources
Top of pageFood Source | Food Source Datasheet | Life Stage | Contribution to Total Food Intake (%) | Details |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tilapia busumana | Aquatic|Adult |
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Tolerated | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
30 | 30 |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acanthoscelides puelliopsis | Herbivore | Plants|Seeds | not specific | |||
Aecidium | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Cercospora canescens | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Cladosporium oxysporum | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Desmodium mosaic virus | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Meibomeus apicicornis | Herbivore | Plants|Seeds | not specific | |||
Meibomeus mitchellii | Herbivore | Plants|Seeds | not specific | |||
Meibomeus panamensis | Herbivore | Plants|Seeds | not specific | |||
Meliola bicornis | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Meliola denticulata | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
mycoplasma-like organisms | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Oidium | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Peanut mottle virus | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Peanut stunt virus | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
Phomopsis | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Pseudocercospora meibomiae | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Urbanus proteus | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
Uromyces hedysari-paniculati | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSeveral genera of fungi and other plant pathogens have been shown to attack D. incanum, and other diseases are known to infest Desmodium spp., but no information is given about these species (Lenné and Stanton, 1990). Viruses include peanut mottle virus (Demski et al., 1981) and peanut stunt cucumovirus (Gillaspie Jr and Ghabrial, 1998). As such, the plant could harbour a number of diseases and pests that attack peanut crops. It is resistant to root-knotting nematodes and is a suggested source of resistance genes (Quesenberry et al., 2008). A few species of pea or bean weevils (genus Meibomeus) are known to feed on D. incanum (Romero and Johnson, 2002). Any predators, diseases or pests of peas and beans could potentially impact this species. Some generalist insect predators of beans, such as Urbanus proteus, are known to attack D. incanum, and there are probably many more of these than are documented here (Capinera, 2011). The seed beetle Acanthoscelides puelliopsis is a seed predator of D. incanum, and is from a group that is specialized on plants in the subfamily Papilionoideae (Johnson and Siemens, 1995).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Animal production | Stick-tight mechanism permits adherence to animals | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Forage | Often promoted as forage | Yes | Yes | Demski et al. (1981); Schifino-Wittmann (2000); Smith (1995) |
Hitchhiker | Stick-tight seeds provide adherence | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Hunting, angling, sport or racing | Introduced to Round Island, Mauritius, during mammal eradication | Yes | Yes | Griffiths et al. (2013) |
Landscape improvement | Likely to be transported on clothing of workers | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Nursery trade | If promoted for forage and erosion control, it could be a weedy contaminant of other plants and soil | Yes | Yes | |
People foraging | Sticky seeds provide the means to spread on clothes and equipment | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Seed trade | Forage of hydro-mulch seeds sold for planting could contain this species either as the main forage o | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hides, trophies and feathers | Sticky seeds could attach to furs, pelts etc. | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Land vehicles | Sticky seeds could attach to vehicles | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Livestock | Sticky seeds could attach to furs, pelts etc. | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Pets and aquarium species | Sticky seeds could attach to furs, pelts etc. | Yes | Yes | Mori and Brown (1998) |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually invisible |
Economic Impact
Top of pageD. incanum is frequently a significant component of productive grasslands, and is variously viewed as a secondary and valued forage or a weed both within and outside of its native range (Hacker et al., 1996; Jones and Bunch, 2003; Garbulsky and Deregibus, 2006; Guglieri-Caporal et al., 2010). Due to its nitrogen-fixing abilities it is possible that it has an impact on soil nutrient cycles (these could be viewed as positive or negative), but no studies quantify this, or any possible consequences to co-occurring species – not even in the studies of it as a forage. It is a common weed of slash and burn agriculture, and disturbed secondary vegetation (Dalle and de Blois, 2006; Mitja and Miranda, 2010; Randriamalala et al., 2012). It is widespread in many regions where it occurs, but rarely the most significant weed (e.g. Lárez Rivas, 2007). Some costs may be offset at the most minor scales by the benefits derived from its use as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory (Vargas et al., 1991).
On the Big Island of Hawaii (USA), ranchers on (windward) Big Island welcome D. incanum in the pasture. It disappears after about two years of continuous cattle grazing, but comes back vigorously when the field is rested. It does well in a mix with California grass (Urochloa mutica), which also gives way to Paspalum conjugatum after a year or two without steady rotation. D. incanum is also controlled by mowing on coffee farms in the South Kona area of Big Island.
Some extension offices in universities and state government, as well as lawn management companies in North America, describe its identification, control and management as a lawn weed (e.g. University of Florida Extension Office, 2013).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
D. incanum is known to occur in disturbed places on both inhabited and uninhabited islands of the Pacific, and while it is often widespread, it is rarely more than locally abundant (Whistler, 1998; Starr and Starr, 2006; Starr et al., 2006; US Forest Service, 2014). The offshore islands and islets of Hawaii are mainly protected areas and provide a habitat for seabirds. It occurs in protected areas in Hawaii on Molokai at Kalaupapa National Historic Park (Medeiros et al., 1996) and on Maui in Haleakala National Park (Welton and Haus, 2008), but is simply listed with a suite of other invasive species and no negative impacts are attributed to it alone. This weed is occasionally controlled in Hawaii in conservation areas, where it is never a major component. It tends to grow alongside trails and fence lines, but does not do well under the forest canopy (J. Beachy and S. Kaye, Big Island Invasive Species Committee, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013). Its control is usually for its nuisance value and because conservation workers do not want to see it even as a trailside weed in more pristine areas. A congener Desmodium tortuosum is viewed as a more significant (and already widespread) problem in Hawaii (J. Beachy and S. Kaye, Big Island Invasive Species Committee, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013).
The plant occurs in important habitats in Florida, including pine rockland (Green et al., 2008), dry prairies (Orzell and Bridges, 2006), Cedar Key State Reserve (Amoroso and Judd, 1995)and in various protected areas (e.g. Hubbard and Judd, 2013)including the Castillo de San Marcos National Monument (Zomlefer and Giannasi, 2005). It is a significant weed along roads, trails and disturbed areas in Guana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve but doesn’t overly compete with important species, or in relatively intact native plant communities (E. Montgomery, Hawaii Invasive Species Council, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013). It is widespread in the lower two-thirds of the state of Florida and is also documented in several of the northern counties (Wunderlin and Hansen, 2012), and so its occurrence in protected areas is unsurprising.
Impact on Biodiversity
D. incanum has been listed as co-occurring with important species of conservation concern in the Galapagos (Linum cratericola), where it may or may not be native (Simbaña and Tye, 2009). However, it is not described as a threat to these species. Similarly, it is listed as an invasive species in cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) habitat on land used by the military for training, but is likely to pose little or no threat to the woodpecker or the vegetation upon which the woodpecker depends (Guertin and Tess, 2006). It is listed as one of many non-native species co-occurring with the threatened endemic species in Florida including Harrisia aboriginum, Argythamnia blodgettii and Indigoferatrita subsp. scabra (Bradley et al., 2004; Hodges and Bradley, 2006). The presumed mechanism for an impact is via competition, but no clear indication of it being a significant threat is given. In Hawaii, there is one instance where D. incanum threatens conservation values, where it (along with other non-native species) has invaded the West Maui population of Tetramolopium sylvae (Hank Oppenheimer, Maui Nui Plant Extinction Prevention Program, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Argythamnia blodgettii | NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened) | Florida | Competition | Bradley et al. (2004) | |
Harrisia aboriginum (Aboriginal prickly-apple) | NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species | Florida | Competition | Bradley et al. (2004) | |
Indigofera trita subsp. scabra (Asian Indigo) | No Details | Florida | Competition | Bradley et al. (2004) | |
Picoides borealis | NT (IUCN red list: Near threatened) | USA | Guertin and Tess (2006) | ||
Tetramolopium sylvae | NatureServe; NatureServe; NatureServe | Hawaii | Competition | ||
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda | National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010) |
Social Impact
Top of pageMainly a scourge for parents who have to pick it out of their children’s socks (and their own), and it frequently attaches to shoe laces, and trouser bottoms. It is best described as a major nuisance.
Conservation managers with awareness of the issue try not to spread weeds of any kind to pristine areas, and the diligence required can be time-consuming and stressful.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Reproduces asexually
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Increases vulnerability to invasions
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts livelihoods
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition (unspecified)
- Pest and disease transmission
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Rapid growth
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
In pastures it has been promoted as a useful nitrogen-fixer and a source of fodder with extra protein. It may be useful because it survives herbivory, some herbicide applications, and dry conditions (Smith, 1995; Schifino-Wittmann, 2000; Garbulsky and Deregibus, 2006; ILDIS, 2013; Tropical Forages, 2013). It is secondarily preferred by livestock, however, and therefore ranchers must invest effort in maintaining the preferred grasses (Bergin, 2003; Jones and Bunch, 2003).
Social Benefit
D. incanum is used as a diuretic, stomachic, febrifuge and hemostatic in Central America (Setyowati-Indarto and Brink, 1999).
Environmental Services
Despite its status as an invasive species in the Pacific (US Forest Service, 2014), the USDA continues to promote the planting of this species to establish ground cover, in the context of agricultural and biodiversity values and for soil conservation measures (USDA-NRCS, 2012).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Land reclamation
- Revegetation
Diagnosis
Top of pageNo methods are available for testing and screening this species, apart from the usual use of plant identification tools such as keys. DNA barcoding would be possible, since several DNA barcoding regions have been sampled and are available on GenBank (NCBI, 2014).
Detection and Inspection
Top of pageInspection of sticky D. incanum seeds and seed pods on equipment and clothing, and removing or cleaning of these, could slow or prevent the spread of this species.
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageDesmodium is a large genus (around 450 species). Congeners in its native range are described with keys (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005; Lárez Rivas, 2007; Dutra et al., 2009) and from flora descriptions outside its native range (e.g. Wagner et al., 1999).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural control and sanitary measures
Reducing grazing frequency can favour co-occurring pasture grasses, and the competitive interaction can reduce D. incanum dominance (Bergin, 2003). Partially contradicting, one observer suggested continuous grazing may effectively control D. incancum to low levels, but that after release from grazing pressure it 'comes back with a vengeance' (S. Kaye, Big Island Invasive Species Committee, Hawaii USA, personal communication, 2013). Tortoises were found to significantly reduce the cover of introduced plants compared to native species on Round Island in Mauritius (Griffiths et al., 2013), and D. incanum formed a significant part of their diet. It is not clear whether the cover of D. incanum was reduced by tortoise herbivory. In most cases it is regarded as tolerant of herbivory, disturbance and tillage (Dalle and de Blois, 2006; Guglieri-Caporal et al., 2010; Randriamalala et al., 2012).
Physical/mechanical control
D. incanum reproduces by seed, stolons and broken taproots. Complete removal of the roots is required for effective control. It withstands or benefits from fire, intense grazing and tillage (Dalle and de Blois, 2006; Guglieri-Caporal et al., 2010; Randriamalala et al., 2012).
Movement control
Conservation workers in Hawaii and elsewhere are in the practice of wearing clean, D. incanum seed-free clothes when going to field sites that may be relatively weed-free. For example, this would be important when flying into conservation areas by helicopter.
Chemical control
Often D. incanum is a lawn weed and is considered hard to control because the tap root can persist after herbicide treatments (University of Florida Nassau County Extension, 2013). A pre-emergent herbicide can be used in spring to help control D. incanum in lawns (University of Florida Extension Office, 2013). One control method requires that you locate the main stem, cut it close to the ground and immediately “paint” the cut stem with a glyphosate-type product (University of Florida Extension Office, 2013). Control with triclopyr can be as high as 90% and does not kill associated grasses such as Paspalum notatum (Freitas et al., 2003). Use of herbicides generally to control it, or other weeds will not necessarily cause its decline, and can promote its dominance (Reinert et al., 2004).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageThis weed may be under-reported where it is common and is probably in more sites than reported. Its pattern and history of spread could perhaps be ascertained via population genetic studies.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Andrade ALP, Miotto STS, Santos EP dos, 2009. [English title not available]. (A subfamilia Faboideae (Fabaceae Lindl.) no Parque Estadual do Guartela, Parana, Brasil.) Hoehnea, 36(4):737-768.
Assuncao VA, Guglieri-Caporal A, Sartori ALB, 2011. [English title not available]. (Floristica do estrato herbaceo de um remanescente de cerradao em Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil.) Hoehnea, 38(2):281-288.
Bergin B, 2003. Loyal to the land: the legendary Parker Ranch, 750-1950. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press, 368 pp.
Bradley KA, Woodmansee SW, Gann GD, 2004. Status survey of aboriginal pricklyapples, Harrisia aboriginum Small ex Britton & Rose, in Southwestern Florida. Vero Beach, Florida, USA: United States Fish and Wildlife Service, South Florida Ecosystem Office. http://regionalconservation.org/ircs/pdf/publications/2004_06.pdf
Capinera JL, 2011. Bean Leafroller, Urbanus proteus (Linnaeus) (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). Gainesville, Florida, USA: University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN12700.pdf
Chow KH, Crowder LV, 1973. Hybridization of Desmodium species. Euphytica, 22(2):399-404.
Chow KH, Crowder LV, 1974. Flowering behaviour and seed development in four Desmodium species. Agronomy Journal, 66(2):236-238.
Cook BG, Pengelly BC, Brown SD, Donnelly JL, Eagles DA, Franco MA, Hanson J, Partridge IJ, Peter M, Schultze-Kraft R, 2005. Tropical Forages: an interactive selection tool. Brisbane, Australia: CSIRO, DPI&F, CIAT, ILRI. http://www.tropicalforages.info/
D'Arcy WG, 1967. Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola, Virgin Islands. Rhodora, 69(780):385-450.
Dwyer JD, Spellman DL, 1981. A list of the Dicotyledoneae of Belize. Rhodora, 83:161-236.
Etcheverry AV, Aleman MM, Figueroa Fleming T, Gomez CA, Lopez Spahr D, 2010. Anther-stigma separation in Desmodium species (Papilionoideae-Fabaceae) from Northwestern Argentina. Acta Horticulturae, 918:183-188.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2013. Flora of North America North of Mexico. Flora of North America. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Fosberg FR, 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. Atoll Research Bulletin, 39:22 pp.
Franke LB, Baseggio J, 1998. Superacao da dormencia de sementes de Desmodium incanum DC. e Lathyrus nervosus Lam. Revista Brasileira de Sementes, 20:420-424.
Freitas FCL, Ferreira LR, Silva AA, Barbosa JG, Miranda GV, Machado AFL, 2003. Eficiencia do triclopyr no controle de plantas daninhas em gramado (Paspalum notatum). Planta Daninha, 21:159-164.
Garbulsky MF, Deregibus VA, 2006. Country pasture/forage resource profiles: Argentina. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization. http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/PDF%20files/Argentina.pdf
Green SE, Bradley KA, Gann GD, Schulz C, 2008. Restoration of privately owned pine rockland habitat in Miami-Dade County. Vero Beach, Florida, USA: United States Fish and Wildlife Service. http://regionalconservation.org/ircs/pdf/publications/2008_2.pdf
Guertin PJ, Tess S, 2006. Co-occurence of invasive species on priority TES installations (Technical Report). Vicksburg, USA: US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory. http://acwc.sdp.sirsi.net/client/search/asset/1002536;jsessionid=00C4BE79EAFA7E03BC7EC0AD7E220891.enterprise-15000
Hacker JB, Glatzle A, Vanni R, 1996. Paraguay: a potential source of new pasture legumes for the subtropics. Tropical Grasslands, 30:273-281.
Hodges SR, Bradley KA, 2006. Distribution and population size of five candidate plant taxa in the Florida Keys: Argythamnia blodgettii, Chamaecrista lineata var. keyensis, Indigofera mucronata var. keyensis, Linum arenicola, and Sideroxylon reclinatum subsp. austrofloridense. Vero Beach, Florida, USA: United States Fish and Wildlife Service. http://regionalconservation.org/ircs/pdf/publications/2006_07.pdf
Hollas R, Reckziegel C, Gomes C, Rosa P, 2008. [English title not available]. (Flora de Fabaceae em Campos da Serra do Sudeste do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil.) In: XVII Congresso de Iniciacao Cientifica. 5.
Hubbard JR, Judd WS, 2013. Floristics of Silver River State Park, Marion County, Florida. Rhodora, 115:250-280.
ILDIS, 2013. International Legume Database & Information Service. Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, Unversity of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Imada CT, 2012. Hawaiian Native and Naturalized Vascular Plants Checklist. Bishop Musem Technical Report. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum.
Johnson CD, Siemens DH, 1995. New host records from Ecuador and Venezuela for the genus Acanthoscelides (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Journal of Stored Products Research, 31:267-269.
Jones RM, Bunch GA, 2003. Experiences with farm pastures at the former CSIRO Samford Research Station, south-east Queensland, and how these relate to results from 40 years of research. Tropical Grasslands, 37:151-164.
Josekutty PC, Wakuk EE, Joseph MJ, 2002. Invasive weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesica Supplement, 6:61-65. [Invasive species and their management.]
McCormack G, 2013. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database. Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/search.asp
Medeiros AC, Chimera CG, Loope LL, 1996. Ka'uhako Crater botanical resource and threat monitoring. Hawaii, USA: Kalaupapa National Historical Park.
Meyer J-Y, 2007. Rapport de mission sur l'ile d'Uvea (Wallis et Futuna) du 6 au 17 novembre 2007: inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire ([English title not available]). http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. Global Environmental Research, 8:171-193.
NCBI, 2014. GenBank. Bethseda, Maryland, USA: National Center for Biodiversity Information. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/
Orchard AE, 1994. Flora of Australia, Vol. 50, Oceanic Islands 2. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service, 606 pp.
Orzell SL, Bridges EL, 2006. Floristic composition of the south-central Florida dry prairie landscape. In: Land of Fire and Water: The Florida Dry Prairie Ecosystem. Proceedings of the Florida Dry Prairie Conference [ed. by Noss, R. F.]. DeLeon Springs, Florida, USA: E.O. Painter Printing Company, 64-99.
Parodi LR, 1943. La vegetacion del Departamento de San Martin en Corrientes (Argentina). Darwiniana, 6:127-178.
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Quesenberry KH, Dampier JM, Crow B, Dickson DW, 2008. Response of native Southeastern US legumes to root-knot nematodes. Crop Science, 48:2274-2278.
Ragone D, Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa. Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, 91 pp.
Reinert DJ, Berretta E, Gomar EP, Prechac FG, Marchesi C, Reichert JM, 2004. Semeadura direta de forrageiras de estacao fria em campo natural submetido a aplicacao de herbicidas: II. Composicao botanica. Ciencia Rural, 34:769-777.
Robertson SA, Todd DM, 1983. Vegetation of Fregate Island, Seychelles. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273:253 pp.
Setyowati-Indarto N, Brink M, 1999. Desmodium Desv. Record from Proseabase. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) Foundation. http://proseanet.org/prosea/e-prosea_detail.php?frt=&id=226
Shine C, Reaser JK, Gutierrez AT, 2003. Prevention and management of invasive alien species: Proceedings of a workshop on forging cooperation throughout the Austral-Pacific. Cape Town, South Africa: Global Invasive Species Programme.
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji. Volume I. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 494 pp.
Smith EG, 1995. Preliminary evaluation of tropical forage legumes in Suakoko, Liberia. Pasturas Tropicales, 17:34-37.
Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum, 103 pp.
Space JC, Waterhouse B, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, 174 pp.
Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Newfield M, Bull C, 2004. Report to the Government of Niue and the United Nations Development Programme: Invasive plant species on Niue following Cyclone Heta. 80 pp. [UNDP NIU/98/G31 - Niue Enabling Activity.] http://www.hear.org/pier/reports/niue_report_2004.htm
Starr F, Starr K, 2006. Oahu Offshore Islets Botanical Survey. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Hawaii State Department of Land and Natural Resources and Offshore Islet Restoration Committee. http://www.hear.org/starr/publications/2006_oahu_islets_botanical_survey.pdf
Starr F, Starr K, Wood K, 2006. Maui Offshore Islets Botanical Survey. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: State Department of Land and Natural Resources and the Offshore Islet Restoration Committee. http://hear.org/starr/publications/2006_maui_islets_botanical_survey.pdf
University of Florida Nassau County Extension, 2013. Garden Talk - Weeds. Callahan, Florida, USA. http://nassau.ifas.ufl.edu/horticulture/gardentalk/weeds.html
USDA-NRCS, 2012. Pacific Islands area vegetative guide. Washington DC, USA: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_PLANTMATERIALS/publications/hipmstn14436.pdf
USDA-NRCS, 2013. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Vargas VM, Guidobono RR, Henriques JA, 1991. Genotoxicity of plant extracts. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 86:67-70.
Wagner WL, Lorence DH, 2013. Flora of the Marquesas Islands. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/marquesasflora/index.htm
Welton P, Haus B, 2008. Vascular plant inventory of Ka'apahu, Haleakala National Park. Honoulu, Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii at Manoa. http://manoa.hawaii.edu/hpicesu/techr/151/v151.pdf
Whistler WA, 1998. A study of the rare plants of American Samoa. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service. http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/basch/uhnpscesu/pdfs/sam/Whistler1998rareAS.pdf
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida. www.plantatlas.usf.edu
Distribution References
Andrade ALP, Miotto STS, Santos EP dos, 2009. [English title not available]. (A subfamilia Faboideae (Fabaceae Lindl.) no Parque Estadual do Guartela, Parana, Brasil). In: Hoehnea, 36 (4) 737-768.
Assuncao VA, Guglieri-Caporal A, Sartori ALB, 2011. [English title not available]. (Floristica do estrato herbaceo de um remanescente de cerradao em Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil). In: Hoehnea, 38 (2) 281-288.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
D'Arcy WG, 1967. Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola, Virgin Islands. In: Rhodora, 69 (780) 385-450.
Dwyer JD, Spellman DL, 1981. A list of the Dicotyledoneae of Belize. In: Rhodora, 83 161-236.
Fosberg FR, 1955. Northern Marshall Islands Expedition, 1951-1952. Land biota: vascular plants. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 39 22 pp.
Garbulsky MF, Deregibus VA, 2006. Country pasture/forage resource profiles: Argentina., Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization. http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/PDF%20files/Argentina.pdf
Hacker JB, Glatzle A, Vanni R, 1996. Paraguay: a potential source of new pasture legumes for the subtropics. In: Tropical Grasslands, 30 273-281.
Hollas R, Reckziegel C, Gomes C, Rosa P, 2008. [English title not available]. (Flora de Fabaceae em Campos da Serra do Sudeste do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil). In: XVII Congresso de Iniciacao Cientifica, 5
ILDIS, 2013. International Legume Database & Information Service., Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, Unversity of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Imada CT, 2012. Hawaiian Native and Naturalized Vascular Plants Checklist. In: Bishop Musem Technical Report, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum.
Jones RM, Bunch GA, 2003. Experiences with farm pastures at the former CSIRO Samford Research Station, south-east Queensland, and how these relate to results from 40 years of research. In: Tropical Grasslands, 37 151-164.
Josekutty PC, Wakuk EE, Joseph MJ, 2002. Invasive weedy angiosperms in Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. In: Micronesica Supplement, 6 61-65.
Meyer J-Y, 2007. [English title not available]. (Rapport de mission sur l'ile d'Uvea (Wallis et Futuna) du 6 au 17 novembre 2007: inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire)., http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf
Mito T, Uesugi T, 2004. Invasive alien species in Japan: the status quo and the new regulation for prevention of their adverse effects. In: Global Environmental Research, 8 171-193.
Orchard AE, 1994. Flora of Australia., 50 Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service. 606 pp.
Parodi LR, 1943. (La vegetacion del Departamento de San Martin en Corrientes (Argentina)). In: Darwiniana, 6 127-178.
PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Ragone D, Lorence DH, 2003. Botanical and Ethnobotanical Inventories of the National Park of American Samoa., Hawaii, USA: Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Department of Botany, University of Hawaii. 91 pp.
Reinert DJ, Berretta E, Gomar EP, Prechac FG, Marchesi C, Reichert JM, 2004. (Semeadura direta de forrageiras de estacao fria em campo natural submetido a aplicacao de herbicidas: II. Composicao botanica). In: Ciencia Rural, 34 769-777.
Robertson SA, Todd DM, 1983. Vegetation of Fregate Island, Seychelles. Floristics and ecology of Western Indian Ocean islands. In: Atoll Research Bulletin No. 273, 253 pp.
Smith AC, 1979. Flora Vitiensis nova: A new flora of Fiji., I Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden. 494 pp.
Smith EG, 1995. Preliminary evaluation of tropical forage legumes in Suakoko, Liberia. In: Pasturas Tropicales, 17 34-37.
Space JC, Imada CT, 2004. Report to the Republic of Kiribati on invasive plant species on the islands of Tarawa, Abemama, Butaritari and Maiana., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service and Bishop Museum. 103 pp.
Space JC, Waterhouse B, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service. 174 pp.
USDA-NRCS, 2013. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Whistler WA, 1998. A study of the rare plants of American Samoa., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: US Fish and Wildlife Service. http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/basch/uhnpscesu/pdfs/sam/Whistler1998rareAS.pdf
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2012. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Tampa, Florida, USA: Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page13/1/14 Original text by:
Christopher E. Buddenhagen, Florida State University, USA
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