Centaurea iberica (Iberian starthistle)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Habit

Centaurea iberica; habit. Turkey. June 2016.

©Erhan Yelekci/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0

Habit

Centaurea iberica; flowering habit. Israel.

©Eitan f/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Flower

Centaurea iberica; flower. Menashe hills, Israel. May 2008.

©Eitan f/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Centaurea iberica Trev. Ex Sprengel (1826)

Preferred Common Name

Iberian starthistle

Other Scientific Names

Calcitrapa iberica (Spreng.) Schur (1866)
Leucantha iberica (Spreng.) Á. Löve & D. Löve (1961)

Local Common Names

English: Iberian knapweed; Spanish centaury-thistle
Spanish: abrepuño gigante; azulejo gigante
Brazil: centáurea-gigante

Summary of Invasiveness

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C. iberica appears to be somewhat weedy in its native environment, but is less aggressively invasive elsewhere than other Centaurea species. The only South American country where it appears to have established as an invasive alien is Argentina. It has been introduced in Europe and North America, but has either failed to persist or eradication efforts have been successful to some degree. Only in California has eradication not been achieved. Introductions in Wyoming and Oregon have not expanded rapidly. In its native range, various uses in folk medicine are proving to have a scientific basis. C. iberica is on prohibited weed lists in Chile and Australia; and is a Class A noxious weed in California and Oregon, and a prohibited noxious weed in Arizona, Nevada and Wyoming.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Centaurea
Species: Centaurea iberica

Description

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Plants 20-200 cm tall; stems 1-several, divaricately much branched (‘bushy’ in some references), often forming a rounded mound, puberulent to loosely tomentose. Leaves hispidulous to loosely tomentose, more or less glabrate, dotted with minute resin glands; proximal leaves petiolate, blades 10-20 cm, margins 1-2 times pinnately lobed or dissected, rosette with central cluster of spines; mid sessile, not decurrent, blades more or less lanceolate, shorter; distal blades linear to oblong, entire to coarsely dentate or shallowly lobed. Heads disciform, borne singly or in leafy cymiform arrays, sessile or short-pedunculate. Involucres ovoid to hemispheric, 10-18 mm. Principal phyllaries: bodies greenish or stramineous, ovate, scarious-margined, appendages stramineous, spiny-fringed at the base, each tipped by a stout, spreading spine 1-3 cm long. Inner phyllaries: appendages truncate, spineless. Florets many; corollas white, pink or pale purple, those of sterile florets slender, 15-20 mm, those of fertile florets 15-20 mm. Cypselae white or brown streaked, 3-4 mm, glabrous. Pappus of white bristles 1-2.5 mm (Keil and Ochsmann, 2006).

Plant Type

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Annual
Biennial
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Dec 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native			Holm et al. (1979)
Armenia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Azerbaijan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
China	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Xinjiang	Present	Native			China, Chinese Academy of Sciences (1959)
Georgia	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
India	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Jammu and Kashmir	Present	Native			Hooker (1882) Kaul (1986) Sharma et al. (1995)	Kashmir 5-6000 ft. Westward to the Atlantic
Iran	Present	Native			Rechinger (1963) Parsa (1978) Khaniki (1995) Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2013) Hassannejad et al. (2014)
Iraq	Present	Native			Field (1940)	Jebel Baykhair near Zakho, near Amara
Israel	Present	Native			Tadmor et al. (1974) Feinbrun-Dothan (1978) Rubin and Benjamin (1984)
Jordan	Present	Native			Petney (1988) Qasem (2006)
Kazakhstan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Kyrgyzstan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009) CABI (Undated)
Lebanon	Present	Native			Mouterde (1966) Senatore et al. (2005)
Pakistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009) Ihsan Ullah et al. (2011)
Syria	Present	Native			Mouterde (1966)
Tajikistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Turkey	Present, Widespread	Native			Wagenitz (1975)	Fields, roadsides, waste land s.l. -2300 m
Turkmenistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Uzbekistan	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Europe
Bulgaria	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Cyprus	Present	Native			Meikle (1977)
Estonia	Present	Introduced	1932		Seebens et al. (2017)
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present	Native			Dostàl (1976)
France	Absent, Formerly present				Touchy (1857)	Transitory species at Juvenal Port
Greece	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Italy	Present	Introduced			Pignatti (1982)	Adventive, disturbed places
Latvia	Present	Introduced	1961		Seebens et al. (2017)
Lithuania	Present	Introduced	1967		Gudzinskas (1997)
Romania	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
Ukraine	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2009)
United Kingdom	Absent, Formerly present				Dunn (1905) Fraser (1905) Clement and Foster (1994)	Casual alien e.g., once or twice near Slateford Railway Sta. & Leith Docks in 1904; First reported: >1900
North America
United States	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-California	Present, Few occurrences	Introduced	1923	Invasive	Howell (1959) Robbins et al. (1970) Hickman (1993)	Eradicated in 1 location, ongoing in 2 others
-Kansas	Present	Introduced			McGregor et al. (1976) McGregor (1986)
-Oregon	Present, Few occurrences	Introduced	1954		Roché and Roché (1998) USA, Oregon, Institute of Natural Resources (2009)	Jackson Co. Clackamas & Wheeler counties
-Washington	Absent, Formerly present		1929		Roche and Talbott (1986)	Kittitas Co.
-Wyoming	Present	Introduced	1955		Dorn (1977)	Converse (2000), Big Horn counties
South America
Argentina	Present	Introduced	1956		Parodi (1956) Holm et al. (1979) CABI (Undated)	Also collections at Smithsonian Herbarium from 1961-1988

History of Introduction and Spread

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C. iberica was introduced in Europe in the 1800s and early 1900s (e.g., Juvenal Gate in southern France and grain fields and railway stations in England and Scotland) but most introductions have failed to persist. Ballast ground introductions in North America have also not established. In California, C. iberica was first reported in 1923 near Solvang, Santa Ynez Canyon, Santa Barbara County (Robbins et al., 1970). In July 1929 a larger population was found near Santa Rosa. Two infestations, one of about 80 acres, were reported in San Diego County (near Ramona in 1932 and in Santa Teresa Valley in 1938) (Howell, 1959; Robbins et al., 1970). As a Class A noxious weed, an eradication program is in effect; one population has been eradicated and eradication is on-going for the other two (Rejmanek and Pitcairn, 2006). C. iberica was reported from 1955 through 2000 in Converse County, Wyoming (Dorn, 1977; Rice, 2009).

Habitat

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C. iberica has been reported in fields and on roadsides and wasteland in Turkey, from sea level to 2300 m (Wagenitz, 1975).

In North America, C. iberica grows along roadsides and in fields and pastures (Keil and Ochsmann, 2006). In California it has often been reported to colonize the banks of watercourses and other moist sites (DiTomaso and Healy, 2007).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Present, no further details
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Arid regions	Present, no further details

Hosts/Species Affected

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C. iberica was reported to be one of the top three weeds in mustard fields in the district of Chakwal in Pakistan, and was ranked seventh overall in importance among all the weeds (Nasir and Sultan, 2006).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Medicago sativa (lucerne)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2014)
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Unknown	Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2013); Hassannejad et al. (2014); Ihsan et al. (2011)

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

2n=20 (Plitman, 1976; Hellwig, 1994; Garcia-Jacas et al., 1997)

2n=16 (Tonian, 1980)

x=10 (Powell et al., 1974; Goldblatt and Johnson, 1991; Khaniki, 1995).

Reproductive Biology

C. iberica reproduces prolifically by seed (Whitson et al., 1996).

Physiology and Phenology

C. iberica plants form a rosette in late May and June and flower in July and August (Whitson et al., 1996). In California, flowering occurs between July and October (DiTomaso and Healy, 2007). It is a winter annual, biennial (Whitson et al., 1996) or short-lived perennial (Keil and Ochsmann, 2006). DiTomaso and Healy (2007) state that “the biology of this species is probably similar to purple starthistle” indicating that little is known about C. iberica in North America. Turkoglu et al. (2009) studied the effects of temperature on germination in C. iberica above 1750 m in Turkey. In Israel, it flowers in April, May, June and July (http://www.flowersinisrael.com/Centaureaiberica_page.htm).

Environmental Requirements

In Israel, C. iberica grows on light soils and in the Mediterranean it occurs in woodlands and on shrublands, semi-steppes and the montane vegetation of Mt. Hermon.

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description	Remark
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Preferred	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References	Biological control in	Biological control on
Bruchidius tuberculatus	Herbivore	Plants\|Seeds		Nakeer et al. (2013)

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)

Most seed falls near the parent plant or is dispersed over short distances by wind or sometimes water (DiTomaso and Healy, 2007).

Vector Transmission (Biotic)

Longer distance dispersal is probably mediated by human or other animal activities, for example, on vehicles, in mud or soil, on hooves or equipment, clinging to fur or hair, or passing through the digestive tract of an animal. The presence of C. iberica at woollen mills indicates that sheep transport the seeds (Fraser, 1905).

Accidental Introduction

All of the introductions appear to have been accidental, or at least caused by carelessness. Soil carried as ballast on ships may have been the most significant long distance dispersal mechanism for C. iberica between continents (Roché and Talbott, 1986) but it has also been transported with grains (Dunn, 1905).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Animal production			Yes
Disturbance			Yes

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Debris and waste associated with human activities		Yes
Land vehicles		Yes
Ship ballast water and sediment		Yes

Economic Impact

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In Israel, where it is native, C. iberica is a weed in agricultural fields (Rubin and Benjamin, 1984; Hadar et al., 1988) as well as a dominant plant in some annual grasslands. It is used as rangeland for sheep production (Tadmor et al., 1974).

Environmental Impact

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Impact on Biodiversity

C. iberica is present as a part of the diverse native flora in the best rangelands on the West Bank, which are suitable for a Highly Sensitive Area (HSA): in the District of Jenin, on the northeastern side of the mountain of Lehif Jader (Palestine Institute For Arid Land and Environmental Studies, 1996).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Has high reproductive potential

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture

Uses

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Economic Value

Drozda (1965) reported the occurrence of cnicin in C. iberica. Dumlu and Gürkan (2006) isolated sesquiterpene lactones and a steroidal compound from C. iberica in Turkey, which showed significant antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Ulusoylu et al. (2001) reported antibacterial and antifungal activities in extracts from C. iberica in Turkey.

C. iberica is one of several Centaurea species used in Turkish folk medicine to alleviate the pain and inflammatory symptoms in rheumatoid arthritis, high fever, headache, and for healing of wounds (in particular, the aerial part of C. iberica is applied on wounds for healing). Koca et al. (2009) evaluated the anti-inflammatory and healing properties of extracts of C. iberica. They found that C. iberica displays remarkable wound healing and anti-inflammatory activity. Senatore et al. (2005) studied the chemistry of C. iberica in Lebanon and isolated 91 volatile components, mostly fatty acids and hydrocarbons. In Pakistan, Hussain et al. (2004) studied antidiabetic compounds in C. iberica and found insulin secretagogue activity at 10 µg/mL in its extracts. Abdel-Jalil (2002) also investigated extracts of C. iberica for possible hypoglycaemic activity.

In Jordan, Qasem (2002) studied the effects of root exudates of C. iberica on parasitic branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa) and determined that they did not reduce parasitic infection in tomatoes.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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C. iberica closely resembles Centaurea calcitrapa (Keil and Ochsmann, 2006). The rosettes of both species have deeply lobed leaves with light coloured midribs and spines develop in the centre of the rosette. The introductions in Kansas and Wyoming were first reported as C. calcitrapa (McGregor, 1986). The capitula of C. iberica are more globose than the narrow heads of C. calcitrapa (Roché and Roché, 1998). Achenes of C. iberica are plumed with a pappus, whereas those of C. calcitrapa lack this feature (Keil and Ochsmann, 2006; DiTomaso and Healy, 2007). Plants of C. iberica tend to be taller and more robust thanthose of C. calcitrapa (McGregor, 1986).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Prevention

In 1978 Chile included C. iberica in a list of species whose seeds were prohibited from entry to the country (faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/chi9312.pdf). It is also on the prohibited seed list for Australia (http://www.invasive.org/gist/global/australia/ast.html).

References

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Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

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30/11/09 Original text by:

Cindy Roché, Consultant, USA

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Centaurea iberica (Iberian starthistle)

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