| Acacia longifolia (golden wattle) | Reported to be dispersed by ants. | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Acarapis woodi (honeybee mite) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Woodward and Quinn,
2011 |
| Aculops fuchsiae (Fuchsia gall mite) | Assumed possible on insects (e.g. bees) or birds | |
Yes
| Koehler et al.,
1985 |
| Adelges tsugae (hemlock woolly adelgid) | | |
Yes
| |
| Adenanthera pavonina (red-bead tree) | Seeds dispersed by birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Aethina tumida | |
Yes
|
Yes
| OIE,
2012 |
| Agropyron cristatum (crested wheatgrass) | dispersal by rodents | |
Yes
| Miller,
2010 |
| Akebia quinata (five-leaf akebia) | | |
Yes
| |
| Alpinia purpurata (red ginger) | Birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Wagner et al.,
1999 |
| Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed) | | |
Yes
| |
| Ambrosia trifida (giant ragweed) | | |
Yes
| |
| Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Carlton et al.,
2011; Tarasov and Zevina,
1957 |
| Amylostereum areolatum | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ciesla,
2003 |
| Antigonon leptopus (coral vine) | Fruits are eaten by birds and pigs |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-NRCS,
2011 |
| Aphanomyces astaci | Infected crayfish (North American species or highly susceptible species) |
Yes
|
Yes
| Oidtmann et al.,
2005 |
| Ardisia crenata (coral berry) | Birds, e.g. Bombycilla cedrorum, Dumetella carolinensis, Ixos amaurotis, Mimus polyglottos | |
Yes
| Kitajima et al.,
2006; Langeland and Burks,
1998; Meisenburg,
2007 |
| Ardisia humilis (low shoebutton) | Fruits are dispersed mainly by birds and small mammals |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2015 |
| Argemone ochroleuca (pale Mexican pricklypoppy) | | |
Yes
| BioNet-EAFRINET,
2011 |
| Atriplex semibaccata (Australian saltbush) | | |
Yes
| |
| Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Austrominius modestus | On molluscs and crustaceans e.g. the crab Portunus holsatus (not a major vector) | |
Yes
| Leloup and Lefevere,
1952 |
| Austropuccinia psidii (myrtle rust) | Foraging honey bees | |
Yes
| Carnegie et al.,
2010b; Chapman,
1964 |
| Avipoxvirus | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bactericera cockerelli (tomato/potato psyllid) | |
Yes
| | |
| Banana bunchy top virus (bunchy top of banana) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) | Infected animals escaping or introduced into natïve host communities | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990; Cunningham et al.,
2015 |
| Bidens frondosa (beggarticks) | On fur of animals | |
Yes
| Brändel,
2004 |
| Bothriocephalus acheilognathi | Fish act as final hosts, copepod crustaceans as intermediate hosts; piscivorous birds can carry eggs |
Yes
|
Yes
| Bauer and Hoffman,
1976; Choudhury and Cole,
2012; Prigli,
1975; Scholz et al.,
2012 |
| Campylopus introflexus | Birds migrating carry spores, shoot tips can attach to the fur of animals |
Yes
|
Yes
| Razgulyaeva et al.,
2001 |
| Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum (zebra chip) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris (yellow disease phytoplasmas) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma australiense | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma phoenicium | Asymmetrasca decedens, Tachycixius viperina and T. cypricus. May be involved in long-distance transmission as well. | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma rubi (witches'-broom phytoplasma disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma solani (Stolbur phytoplasma) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma trifolii (clover proliferation phytoplasma) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| canine distemper virus | Feral domestic dogs; wild animals |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Celtodoryx ciocalyptoides | On shells of Crassostrea gigas |
Yes
| | Pérez et al.,
2006; Henkel and Janussen,
2011 |
| Ceratocystis platani (canker stain of plane) | | |
Yes
| |
| Chelonid herpesvirus 5 | Possibly the marine leech Ozobranchus spp. and the cleaner fish Thalassoma duperrey | |
Yes
| Greenblatt et al.,
2004 |
| Cissus quadrangularis (treebine) | Seeds and stem fragments may be dispersed by birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Nzengue et al.,
2016 |
| Claviceps africana (ergot) | conidia |
Yes
|
Yes
| Prom,
2005; Prom and Lopez,
2004 |
| Claviceps fusiformis (pearl millet ergot) | Insects feeding on honeydew | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990; Sharma et al.,
1983 |
| Claviceps gigantea (horse's tooth) | Conidia on insects | |
Yes
| White,
1999 |
| Claviceps sorghicola | Other vector - Insects - macroconidia |
Yes
| | Tsukiboshi et al.,
1999 |
| Cleome rutidosperma (fringed spiderflower) | Seeds dispersed by ants | |
Yes
| PIER,
2014 |
| Clerodendrum wallichii (Wallich's glorybower) | Birds eat fruit and disperse seeds |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Clusia rosea | Fruiting stage, birds disperse seeds | |
Yes
| Wagner et al.,
1999 |
| Cocksfoot mottle virus (Cocksfoot mottle virus) | Frequency of introduction not known. |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Corbicula fluminea (Asian clam) | Likely spread by waterfowl | |
Yes
| Schmidlin et al.,
2012 |
| Cotton leaf curl Gezira virus (African cotton leaf curl begomovirus) | | | | |
| Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus | Aphis craccivora is reported to be the most efficient vector | |
Yes
| Atiri et al.,
1984; Bock,
1973 |
| Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus (Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows) | Natural dispersion mostly by viruliferous winged aphids |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kassem et al.,
2013 |
| Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth) | Buxus spp. |
Yes
| | Leuthardt et al.,
2010 |
| Diplodia seriata (grapevine trunk disease) | | |
Yes
| |
| Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| East Asian Passiflora virus | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Ehrharta erecta (panic veldtgrass) | Birdseed, starlings and in deer hooves |
Yes
| | Ogle,
1988 |
| Eriobotrya japonica (loquat) | Seeds eaten and dispersed by birds, bats, and other animals |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Erwinia amylovora (fireblight) | Transfer of plants, honeybees and the movement of beehives. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Alexandrova et al.,
2002 |
| Etlingera elatior (torch ginger) | Seeds can be dispersed by ants, birds, bats, and rodents |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2014 |
| Euonymus fortunei (wintercreeper) | Birds spread seeds |
Yes
| | Miller et al.,
2010 |
| Ferrisia virgata (striped mealybug) | Accidental introduction on plant material |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Flacourtia indica (governor's plum) | Birds eat seeds and disperse over short distances | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Gammarus tigrinus | Potential to disperse on aquatic animals | |
Yes
| Swanson,
1984 |
| Gaultheria shallon (salal) | Seeds transported to new areas after ingestion and egestion by birds | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Geosmithia morbida (thousand cankers disease) | Pityophthorus juglandis, in some cases Stenomimus pallidus, and possibly other insects | |
Yes
| |
| Grapevine red blotch virus (grapevine red blotch virus) | GRBV is spread locally by the three-cornered alfalfa hopper | |
Yes
| Bahder et al.,
2016a |
| Halogeton glomeratus (halogeton) | Seeds eaten by sheep and rabbits and remain viable | |
Yes
| Tilley et al.,
2015 |
| Hedychium coccineum (scarlet ginger lily) | Birds eat fruit and spread seed long distances | |
Yes
| |
| Heterotheca grandiflora (telegraph weed) | Possibly stuck to fur of domestic and wild animals | |
Yes
| Csurhes,
2009 |
| Holmskioldia sanguinea (Chinese hat plant) | Seeds reportedly dispersed by birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| PIER,
2014 |
| Hop stunt viroid (hop stunt viroid) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hadidi et al.,
2003 |
| Hydrilla verticillata (hydrilla) | | |
Yes
| |
| Hylocereus undatus (dragon fruit) | Seed dispersed by frugivorous birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort) | Sticky seed capsules stick to wool and fur of animals |
Yes
|
Yes
| Parsons and Cuthbertson,
2001 |
| Inula britannica (british yellowhead) | |
Yes
| | |
| Iris yellow spot virus (iris yellow spot) | The disease is vectored by the onion thrips |
Yes
| | Lewis,
1997 |
| Isatis tinctoria (dyer's woad) | Seeds carried by ants | |
Yes
| Zouhar,
2009 |
| Jatropha gossypiifolia (bellyache bush) | Native ants | |
Yes
| |
| Juncus planifolius (broadleaf rush) | Birds | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Lantana camara (lantana) | Birds, occasionally sheep and goats | |
Yes
| |
| Lemna aequinoctialis (lesser duckweed) | Birds and fish | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Lepidium latifolium (perennial pepperweed) | | |
Yes
| |
| Ligustrum lucidum (broad-leaf privet) | Seeds dispersed by birds | |
Yes
| Aragón and Groom,
2003 |
| Limnocharis flava (yellow bur-head) | | |
Yes
| |
| Marisa cornuarietis (giant ramshorn) | Eggs and snails associated with traded aquatic plants | |
Yes
| |
| Melicoccus bijugatus (Spanish lime) | Seeds can be dispersed by birds and bats |
Yes
|
Yes
| Francis,
1992 |
| Melissococcus plutonius | | |
Yes
| FERA,
2013; Kanbar et al.,
2004 |
| Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (crystalline iceplant) | Seeds may dispersed by rabbits and mice |
Yes
| | Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Mikania micrantha (bitter vine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Monilinia fructigena (brown rot) | | |
Yes
| Byrde and Willetts,
1977; Lack,
1989 |
| Mononychellus tanajoa (cassava green mite) | Eggs, crawlers/adults. Common pathway |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry) | Seeds are dispersed by birds, bats, and other mammals |
Yes
|
Yes
| Nelson,
2006 |
| Mussaenda erythrophylla (red flag bush) | Seeds may be dispersed by birds | |
Yes
| Hau and Corlett,
2002 |
| Mussaenda philippica (Queen of Philippines) | Seeds may be dispersed by birds | |
Yes
| Alejandro et al.,
2016 |
| Myicola ostreae | Through transfer of infected hosts |
Yes
|
Yes
| Comps,
1972; Faasse,
2003; Gollasch et al.,
2009; His,
1979; Ho and Kim,
1991; Holmes and Minchin,
1995; Kim,
2004; Preisler et al.,
2009; Stock,
1993; Streftaris et al.,
2005; Torchin and Mitchell,
2004; Torchin et al.,
2002; Villalba et al.,
1993; Wolff,
2005; Pieterse and Cairns,
1990 |
| Myxobolus cerebralis (whirling disease agent) | Dissemination mainly through movement of salmonoid fish; possibly by wildlife over shorter distances |
Yes
|
Yes
| Koel et al.,
2010 |
| Nandina domestica (Nandina) | Birds and mammals | |
Yes
| Stone,
2009 |
| Neolecanium cornuparvum (magnolia scale) | Can be carried on the feet of birds and by ants | |
Yes
| Herms and Nielsen,
2004; Vanek and Potter,
2010b |
| Nopalea cochenillifera (cochineal cactus) | The species is a host organism of the cochineal insect | | | Encyclopedia of Life,
2017 |
| Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (wild olive) | | |
Yes
| |
| Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive) | | |
Yes
| |
| Ophiostoma longicollum | bark beetle? | |
Yes
| Masuya et al.,
1998 |
| Orobanche cernua (nodding broomrape) | | |
Yes
| |
| Orobanche cumana (sunflower broomrape) | | |
Yes
| |
| Paederia foetida (skunkvine) | Birds excrete seeds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Takahashi and Kamitani,
2004 |
| Paenibacillus larvae | | |
Yes
| Schäfer et al.,
2010 |
| Papuana huebneri (taro beetle) | Taro corms or propagating material |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Paracoccus marginatus (papaya mealybug) | Active transport by mutualistic ants. Passing animals including humans | |
Yes
| Tanwar et al.,
2010 |
| Paspalum conjugatum (buffalo grass) | Seeds adhered to animal fur |
Yes
|
Yes
| PIER,
2018 |
| Paspalum millegrana (yerba brava) | Seeds consumed/dispersed by birds (especially aquatic birds) |
Yes
|
Yes
| Más and Garcia-Molinari,
2006 |
| Paspalum virgatum (sword grass) | Seeds consumed and dispersed by animals |
Yes
|
Yes
| Sistachs and Leon,
1987 |
| Passiflora edulis (passionfruit) | Seeds can be dispersed by birds, pigs, rats, and humans |
Yes
|
Yes
| Francis,
2000 |
| Passiflora tarminiana (banana passionfruit) | Possums and possibly rats | |
Yes
| Beavon,
2007 |
| Peanut stripe virus (groundnut stripe disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pectobacterium brasiliense (soft rot and blackleg of ornamentals and potato) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pectobacterium parmentieri (black leg disease of potato) | | |
Yes
| |
| Persicaria wallichii (Himalayan knotweed) | Animals |
Yes
| | |
| Phalaris aquatica (bulbous canarygrass) | | |
Yes
| |
| Phytophthora lateralis (Port-Orford-cedar root disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hansen et al.,
2000 |
| Pinus elliottii (slash pine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Richardson and Higgins,
1998 |
| Piper aduncum (spiked pepper) | | |
Yes
| ISSG,
2016 |
| Plasmodiophora brassicae (club root) | Infested soil can be moved on livestock | |
Yes
| |
| Plasmodium relictum | Migratory birds |
Yes
| | Laird,
1960; Warner,
1968 |
| Plum pox virus (sharka) | Several aphid species. |
Yes
| | |
| Poa nemoralis (wood bluegrass) | | |
Yes
| |
| Pomacea canaliculata (golden apple snail) | Carried by birds | |
Yes
| |
| Pomacea maculata | Juveniles and adults |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Portulaca quadrifida (chickenweed) | | |
Yes
| |
| Prunus serotina (black cherry) | Birds, mammals, small, seed-catching rodents and the dung beetle Trypocopris vernalis |
Yes
|
Yes
| Boucault,
2009; Smith,
1975; Vanhellemont,
2009 |
| Pseudogymnoascus destructans (white-nose syndrome fungus) | Believed to primarily be spread by infected bats during local movements among roosting sites | |
Yes
| Carpenter et al.,
2016; Lorch et al.,
2011; Wilder et al.,
2015 |
| Pseudomonas cichorii (bacterial blight of endive) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pterolepis glomerata (false meadowbeauty) | Dispersed by birds |
Yes
| | PIER,
2015; Renner,
1994 |
| Raffaelea lauricola (laurel wilt) | R. lauricola is a fungal symbiont of an ambrosia beetle, which disseminates the fungus |
Yes
|
Yes
| Fraedrich et al.,
2008 |
| Raffaelea quercivora (Japanese oak wilt) | Vectored by the ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Rapana venosa (veined rapana whelk) | Fouling Chelonia mydas |
Yes
| | Lezama et al.,
2013 |
| Rhamphicarpa fistulosa | Cattle | |
Yes
| |
| Rhaponticum repens (Russian knapweed) | | |
Yes
| |
| Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Downy rose-myrtle) | Birds | |
Yes
| Csurhes and Hankamer,
2011 |
| Rubus argutus (sawtooth blackberry) | Various bird species, especial non-native birds | |
Yes
| Pieterse and Cairns,
1990; University of Hawaii Botany Department,
2012 |
| Rubus niveus (Mysore raspberry) | Ingested by birds, reptiles and other animals | |
Yes
| Buddenhagen and Jewell,
2006 |
| Rubus racemosus (black raspberry) | Seeds dispersed by frugivorous birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sander vitreus (walleye) | All life stages by natural dispersal |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Schismus arabicus (Arabian schismus) | Seeds carried by harvester ants | |
Yes
| Rissing,
1986 |
| Silene gallica (common catchfly) | Carried on bird feet, livestock feet and harvester ants | |
Yes
| |
| Solidago sempervirens (seaside goldenrod) | Seeds dispersed by crabs and birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Lonard et al.,
2015 |
| Strawberry necrotic shock virus (Strawberry necrotic shock virus) | Thrips transmitted. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Sharman et al.,
2011 |
| Sugarcane grassy shoot phytoplasma (grassy shoot of sugarcane) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| sugarcane white leaf phytoplasma (white leaf of sugarcane) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Thaumetopoea processionea (oak processionary moth) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Evans,
2007 |
| Tibouchina herbacea (cane tibouchina) | Rats and birds | |
Yes
| Almasi,
2000; Motooka et al.,
2003 |
| Tomato apical stunt viroid | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus (Tomato New Delhi virus) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (leaf curl) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Czosnek,
2007b |
| Toxicodendron succedaneum (wax tree) | Fruits dispersed by birds |
Yes
|
Yes
| NZPCN,
2016 |
| Triphasia trifolia (limeberry) | Seeds dispersed by birds |
Yes
| | PIER,
2012 |
| Tropilaelaps | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Defra,
2005 |
| Trypanosoma evansi | Mechanically transmitted by haematophagous flies; in Latin America the vampire bat is mainly responsible for dissemination | |
Yes
| Desquesnes et al.,
2013 |
| Typha domingensis (southern cattail) | Achenes adhere to fish scales. | |
Yes
| Krattinger,
1975 |
| Typha x glauca (hybrid cattail) | Typha's fruits can adhere to fish scales | |
Yes
| Krattinger,
1975 |
| Ulva reticulata (ribbon sea lettuce) | Kappaphycus alvarezii introduction in areas outside its natural occurrence may bring U. reticulata |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ask et al.,
2003 |
| Urochloa mutica (para grass) | Birds spread seeds and stem fragments |
Yes
|
Yes
| Smith,
2002 |
| Uromycladium spp. that cause gall rusts (Acacia gall rusts) | Possible but not main means of dispersal. Living infected host material not traded. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Triyogo and Widyastuti,
2012; Dennill et al.,
1999 |
| Utricularia gibba | Water fowl |
Yes
| | Compton et al.,
2012 |
| Varroa destructor (Varroa mite) | | |
Yes
| Denmark et al.,
2000 |
| Wheat streak mosaic virus (wheat streak) | Aceria tosichella (K.) is the only known vector for wheat streak mosaic virus. |
Yes
| | Keifer,
1969; Slykhuis,
1955 |
