| Acer rufinerve (grey snake-bark maple) | Widely raised and available from nurseries |
Yes
| | |
| Adelges tsugae (hemlock woolly adelgid) | Adelges tsugae was inadvertently shipped to Maine from Connecticut on untreated nursery stock in 199 |
Yes
| | |
| Adonidia merrillii (Christmas palm) | Popular ornamental palm |
Yes
|
Yes
| Lim (2012) |
| Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito) | |
Yes
| | |
| Ageratum houstonianum (Blue billygoatweed) | Plants sold for gardens. | |
Yes
| |
| Agrilus planipennis (emerald ash borer) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cappaert et al. (2005); Poland and McCullough (2006) |
| Akebia quinata (five-leaf akebia) | Intentional introduction |
Yes
| | Swearingen et al. (2009); USDA-ARS (2013) |
| Albizia chinensis (Chinese albizia) | | |
Yes
| |
| Allamanda blanchetii (purple allamanda) | Cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2019) |
| Alocasia cucullata (Chinese taro) | Cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2019) |
| Aloysia citrodora (lemon verbena) | Cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2019) |
| Alpinia purpurata (red ginger) | Ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Alpinia zerumbet (shell ginger) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ibrahim (2001) |
| Alternanthera bettzickiana (calico plant) | Available at some nurseries. | |
Yes
| |
| Ampelopsis arborea (peppervine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Amphisbaena fuliginosa (speckled worm lizard) | Possible pathway | |
Yes
| Murphy et al. (2010) |
| Amynthas agrestis (crazy worm) | Movement with soil or other organic material accompanying plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gates (1954; 1958); Görres and Melnichuk (2012) |
| Anolis cristatellus (Puerto Rican crested anole) | In ornamental flowers |
Yes
| | Perry et al. (2006); Yokoyama (2012) |
| Anolis extremus (Barbados anole) | Possible for Florida, USA introduction |
Yes
| | Bartlett and Bartlett (1998) |
| Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) | |
Yes
| | |
| Anoplophora chinensis (black and white citrus longhorn) | Accidentally spread with woody plants for planting being shipped with eggs or larvae within infested hosts. Dozens of interceptions in Europe since 1980. Haack et al. (2010) EFSA (2019) Hérard and Maspero (2019). |
Yes
| | Haack et al. (2010); EFSA (2019); Hérard and Maspero (2019) |
| Antigonon leptopus (coral vine) | Seeds and plants sold online and in nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Burke and DiTommaso (2011) |
| Ardisia elliptica (shoebutton ardisia) | |
Yes
| | PIER (2009) |
| Argyreia nervosa (elephant creeper) | Available at nurseries and advertised over internet | |
Yes
| Wynman (1944) |
| Armillaria limonea | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Armillaria novae-zelandiae | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Aronia x prunifolia | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Arthurdendyus triangulatus (New Zealand flatworm) | Importation of containerised plants from New Zealand seems the most likely mechanism of invasion |
Yes
|
Yes
| Blackshaw and Stewart (1992); Cannon et al. (1999); Dynes et al. (2001); Stewart and Blackshaw (1993); Willis and Edwards (1977) |
| Arundo donax (giant reed) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dudley (2000) |
| Asparagus asparagoides (bridal creeper) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Brookes and Barley (1992); Mulvaney (1991) |
| Asparagus densiflorus (asparagus fern) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Asparagus falcatus (sicklethorn) | Seeds and plants available for sale at nurseries and the Internet |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Asparagus setaceus (asparagus fern) | ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2016) |
| Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Austrocylindropuntia cylindrica (cane cactus) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Austrocylindropuntia subulata (Eve’s needle cactus) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Austropuccinia psidii (myrtle rust) | Accidental, on infected plant material |
Yes
|
Yes
| Carnegie and Cooper (2011); Kawanishi et al. (2009); Loope (2010); Loope et al. (2007); Zambino and Nolan (2012) |
| Bactericera cockerelli (tomato/potato psyllid) | |
Yes
| | |
| Bambusa longispiculata (mahal bamboo) | Planted as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2019) |
| Bambusa tuldoides (punting pole bamboo) | Planted as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2019) |
| Basella alba (malabar spinach) | Plants available in nurseries in a number of contries |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bauhinia monandra (Napoleon's plume) | Often planted as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Connor (2002) |
| Bauhinia tomentosa (yellow bauhinia) | Widely cultivated as ornamental |
Yes
| | Orwa et al. (2009) |
| Begonia nelumbiifolia (lilypad begonia) | Grown as an ornamental |
Yes
| | |
| Blighia sapida (akee apple) | Plants are sold in nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bougainvillea spectabilis (great bougainvillea) | Popular ornamental. Widely commercialized |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Brachypodium sylvaticum (slender false brome) | Not documented but possible |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Brassica rapa (field mustard) | Seeds and plants available worldwide |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA (2018) |
| Briza maxima (large quaking grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Brugmansia suaveolens (white angel's trumpet) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Buddleja asiatica (dog tail) | For use as medicinal plant or ornamental |
Yes
| | Plants for a Future (2013) |
| Buddleja davidii (butterfly bush) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Caladium bicolor (heart of Jesus) | Widely commercialized in the horticulture trade |
Yes
|
Yes
| Deng (2012) |
| Callisia fragrans (basketplant) | |
Yes
| | |
| Callisia repens (creeping inch-plant) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2013) |
| Cameraria ohridella (horsechestnut leafminer) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gilbert et al. (2005) |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris (yellow disease phytoplasmas) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma australiense | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma rubi (witches'-broom phytoplasma disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma solani (Stolbur phytoplasma) | Transmission by vegetative multiplication of infected plant material is most important for the spread of phytoplasma diseases over long distances and the establishment of initial foci of infection in new growing areas |
Yes
| | Belli et al. (2010) |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma trifolii (clover proliferation phytoplasma) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Canna indica (canna lilly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cardamine flexuosa (wavy bittercress) | Grows as a weed in greenhouses |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2019) |
| Cardiospermum grandiflorum (balloon vine) | Commercialized as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Henderson (2001) |
| Carpobrotus chilensis (sea fig) | Sold as an ornamental at various nurseries and Internet sites |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2019); California Invasive Plant Council (2020) |
| Carpobrotus edulis (hottentot fig) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cascabela thevetia (yellow oleander) | Widely cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle) | Often commercialized as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2015) |
| Cavanillesia platanifolia (cuipo) | Seeds available at the Tropical Agricultural Experiment Station |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2019) |
| Centaurea macrocephala (giant knapweed) | |
Yes
| | |
| Chilo suppressalis (striped rice stem borer) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Chrysomyxa abietis (needle rust of fir) | |
Yes
| | Spaulding (1961) |
| Chrysomyxa rhododendri (European Rhododendron rust) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Bennell (1985); Gould et al. (1955) |
| Cissus quadrangularis (treebine) | Commercialized as an ornamental and medicinal plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA (2018) |
| Clerodendrum lindleyi (clerodendrum) | Grown as an ornamental plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Méndez Santos (2013) |
| Clerodendrum paniculatum (pagoda flower) | Popular ornamental plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (chaya) | Plants and cuttings available for sale |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave’s Garden (2019) |
| Conium maculatum (poison hemlock) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant) | | |
Yes
| |
| Cosmos caudatus (wild cosmos) | Popular garden plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cosmos sulphureus (sulphur cosmos) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Jansen (2005) |
| Costus spicatus (spiked spiralflag ginger) | Plants commercialized as ornamentals |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cotoneaster horizontalis (wall-spray) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cotton leaf curl disease complex (leaf curl disease of cotton) | | | | |
| Cotton leaf curl Gezira virus (African cotton leaf curl begomovirus) | | | | |
| Cowpea mild mottle virus (angular mosaic of beans) | | | | |
| Crassula helmsii (Australian swamp stonecrop) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| OEPP/EPPO (2007) |
| Crassula ovata (jade plant) | Collected from wild for illegal succulent trade |
Yes
|
Yes
| Fragoso et al. (1999) |
| Crataegus monogyna (hawthorn) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Alverson and Sigg (2008) |
| Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora (montbretia) | Many ornamental cultivars developed |
Yes
|
Yes
| The Royal Horticultural Society (2016) |
| Cryptostegia madagascariensis (Madagascar rubbervine) | This species is still sold in the nursery and landscape trade |
Yes
|
Yes
| PIER (2012) |
| Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus | Important method of movement of the virus between regions or across adjacent national land borders |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus (Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows) | Possible through movement of infected seedlings (rare, accidental) |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus | |
Yes
| | |
| Cupressus arizonica (Arizona cypress) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dirr (2009) |
| Cuscuta campestris (field dodder) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cyclosorus parasiticus (parasitic maiden fern) | Presumed cause. Congeners known to be transported between greenhouses as contaminants |
Yes
|
Yes
| Murakami et al. (2007) |
| Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth) | Likely pathway of introduction to Europe |
Yes
| | Leuthardt et al. (2010) |
| Cynoglossum amabile (Chinese forget-me-not) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave’s Garden (2017) |
| Cyperus imbricatus (shingle flatsedge) | Planted as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2013) |
| Cyrtomium falcatum (Japanese holly fern) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Datura innoxia (downy thorn apple) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Deparia petersenii subsp. petersenii (Petersen’s lady fern) | Nursery culture may result in spore distribution in new and distant regions |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Desmodium cajanifolium (tropical tick trefoil) | Although not currently available, it appears on some horticultural Internet sites |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave’s Garden (2020) |
| Desmodium incanum (creeping beggerweed) | If promoted for forage and erosion control, it could be a weedy contaminant of other plants and soil |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Dieffenbachia seguine (dumb cane) | | |
Yes
| Croat (2004) |
| Dimorphotheca sinuata (Cape marigold) | Popular ornamental plant due to attractive flowers |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Diplazium esculentum (vegetable fern) | Used as an ornamental and available in nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Huttleston (1962) |
| Diplodia seriata (grapevine trunk disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Discus rotundatus (rotund disc) | Sylviculture nurseries |
Yes
| | Herbert (2010) |
| Dolichandra unguis-cati (cat's claw creeper) | Widely cultivated as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2016) |
| Dombeya wallichii (pink ball) | Available at nurseries and for trade by gardeners |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2017) |
| Dracaena fragrans (corn plant) | Widely commercialized as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2019) |
| Duranta erecta (golden dewdrop) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| East Asian Passiflora virus | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Eichhornia paniculata (Brazilian water hyacinth) | Water gardens |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hériteau and Thomas (1994) |
| Elaeagnus pungens (thorny olive) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Miller (2003) |
| Eleutherodactylus planirostris (greenhouse frog) | Adults, juveniles and eggs are shipped over long distances and locally to nursery sites |
Yes
|
Yes
| Christy et al. (2007); Dinsmore (2004); Jensen et al. (2008); Kraus et al. (1999); Olson et al. (2012) |
| Emilia coccinea (scarlet tasselflower) | Widely cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA (2018) |
| Epidendrum radicans (crucifix orchid) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth) | |
Yes
| | |
| Epiphyllum oxypetalum (dutchman's-pipe cactus) | Widely cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Lim (2014) |
| Eranthemum pulchellum (blue-sage) | Deliberate | |
Yes
| Gilman (1999) |
| Erigeron bellioides (bellorita) | Weed in potted nursery plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| Fried and Dumbardon-Martial (2015) |
| Eriobotrya japonica (loquat) | Widely commercialized as ornamental/ shade tree/ hedge tree |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al. (2009) |
| Erionota torus (banana skipper) | Local movement of planting material will facilitate the movement of associated early stages. | |
Yes
| Cock (2015) |
| Erwinia amylovora (fireblight) | See introduction to Bologna (Italy) for example. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Bonn and Zwet (2000) |
| Etlingera elatior (torch ginger) | Widely commercialized |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA (2014) |
| Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Euonymus fortunei (wintercreeper) | Many nurseries stock the plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2013) |
| Euonymus japonicus (Japanese spindle tree) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Euphorbia leucocephala (white Christmas bush) | Widely used as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Steinmann (2014) |
| Euphorbia milii (crown-of-thorns) | Popular ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Euphorbia neriifolia (Indian spurge tree) | Widely used as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Euphorbia tirucalli (Indian-tree spurge) | Widely planted for ornamental purposes |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2016) |
| Euphorbia tithymaloides (devil's backbone) | Ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Arnold (2010) |
| Ferrisia virgata (striped mealybug) | Accidental introduction on plants, and also on machinery, tools and workers |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Ficus religiosa (sacred fig tree) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Mabberly (2008); Starr et al. (2003); USDA-ARS (2014); Whistler (2000) |
| Flacourtia indica (governor's plum) | | |
Yes
| |
| Forficula auricularia (European earwig) | accidental; nymphs and adults |
Yes
|
Yes
| Crumb et al. (1941); Weems and Skelley (2010) |
| Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) | Inadvertently transported in infested plant material. Commonly intercepted on transported plant mate |
Yes
|
Yes
| Nickle (2003); Vierbergen (1995) |
| Fraxinus uhdei (tropical ash) | | |
Yes
| |
| Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp) | Xeric landscaping plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Fusicladium effusum (pecan scab) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Galinsoga parviflora (gallant soldier) | Weed in nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Damalas (2008) |
| Galinsoga quadriradiata (shaggy soldier) | Common weed in nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kabuce and Priede (2010) |
| Galphimia glauca (goldshower) | Cultivated and commercialized as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Floridata (2015) |
| Galphimia gracilis (goldshower) | Cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Anderson (2007) |
| Glechoma hederacea (ground ivy) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Glyceria maxima (reed sweet-grass) | Seedlings sold in Victoria in the 1940s |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gippsland and Northern Co-operative CoLtd (1940) |
| Gossypium barbadense (Gallini cotton) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Grapevine red blotch virus (grapevine red blotch virus) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cieniewicz et al. (2017a); Sudarshana et al. (2015) |
| Gunnera tinctoria (giant rhubarb) | Nurseries selling the species in UK can be found by an internet search. Available in nurseries in Au | |
Yes
| Plant and Robertson (2008) |
| Gymnocoronis spilanthoides (Senegal tea plant) | | |
Yes
| |
| Haplaxius crudus (American palm cixiid) | |
Yes
| | |
| Hedychium coccineum (scarlet ginger lily) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2014) |
| Hedychium coronarium (white butterfly ginger lily) | |
Yes
| | |
| Hedychium flavescens (wild ginger) | |
Yes
| | |
| Hedychium gardnerianum (kahili ginger) | |
Yes
| | |
| Helianthus debilis (beach sunflower) | Cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gilman and Park-Brown (1999) |
| Heracleum mantegazzianum (giant hogweed) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Tiley et al. (1996) |
| Heterodera glycines (soybean cyst nematode) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Heterotis rotundifolia (pink lady) | Garden ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Prota4U (2013) |
| Hibiscus tiliaceus (coast cottonwood) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Hiptage benghalensis (hiptage) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| PIER (2007) |
| Holcus lanatus (common velvet grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Humulus scandens (Japanese hop) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane) | Grown worldwide as a medicinal plant and sometimes as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Impatiens balsamina (garden balsam) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| van Valkenburg and Bunyapraphatsara (2001) |
| Impatiens walleriana (busy lizzy) | Extensively cultivated as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Adamowski (2008) |
| Imperata cylindrica (cogon grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Indigofera spicata (creeping indigo) | Soil with cuttings and seeds are transported between sites |
Yes
|
Yes
| Morton (1989) |
| Ipomoea cairica (five-fingered morning glory) | Grown as a garden ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Ipomoea hederifolia (scarlet-creeper ) | Often cultivated as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2016) |
| Ipomoea indica (ocean blue morning-glory) | Extensively commercialized as an ornamental vine |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2017) |
| Ipomoea nil (white edge morning-glory) | Widely cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2017) |
| Ipomoea ochracea (fence morning-glory) | Planted as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Acevedo-Rodríguez (2005) |
| Ipomoea purpurea (tall morning glory) | Potential seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2014) |
| Iris domestica (blackberry lily) | Available at various nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2018) |
| Iris yellow spot virus (iris yellow spot) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gent et al. (2006); Pappu et al. (2009) |
| Ixora casei (giant red ixora) | Ornamental, hedge plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Keeler et al. (2003) |
| Ixora coccinea (flame-of-the-woods) | Deliberate sales |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Jacaranda mimosifolia (jacaranda) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Jasminum fluminense (Brazilian jasmine) | Plants and seeds are sold online
Frequently used as ornamental and hedge plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Jasminum simplicifolium (Australian wax jasmine) | Some vendors have it available |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2018) |
| Jatropha gossypiifolia (bellyache bush) | | |
Yes
| |
| Jatropha integerrima (peregrina) | The species is widely used as an ornamental in tropical and subtropical areas and available at nurseries worldwide |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Juncus ensifolius (swordleaf rush) | Nursery stock sold in USA & Europe |
Yes
| | |
| Kalanchoe blossfeldiana (flaming katy) | Widely commercialized as indoor and outdoor plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kalanchoe Growers (2016) |
| Kalanchoe delagoensis (chandelier plant) | Plants and seedlings commercialized as ornamentals |
Yes
|
Yes
| Moran (2009) |
| Laelia rubescens (flor de la concepción) | |
Yes
| | |
| Lagerstroemia indica (Indian crape myrtle) | Widely cultivated as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-NRCS (2014) |
| Lagerstroemia speciosa (Pride of India) | Commercialized as an ornamental tree |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2017) |
| Lathyrus odoratus (sweet pea) | Ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Branca and Donnini (2011) |
| Lemna aequinoctialis (lesser duckweed) | Some Lemna species are available for sale at aquaria and nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Pott (2002) |
| Lemna perpusilla (duckweed) | |
Yes
| | Maki and Galatowitsch (2004) |
| Leonurus japonicus (honeyweed) | Used in herbal traditional medicine |
Yes
|
Yes
| Teo and Pin (2001) |
| Leptocybe invasa (blue gum chalcid) | The most relevant pathway |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Leptospermum scoparium (manuka) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Lespedeza cuneata (sericea lespedeza) | Available from horticultural suppliers |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Leucanthemum vulgare (oxeye daisy) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Leucophyllum frutescens (Texas barometer bush) | Popular ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Liberibacter africanus (African greening) | Deliberate introductions within countries | |
Yes
| |
| Liberibacter asiaticus (Asian greening) | Deliberate introductions within countries | |
Yes
| |
| Ligustrum lucidum (broad-leaf privet) | Widely used as ornamental and hedge plants |
Yes
| | Swarbrick et al. (1999) |
| Ligustrum obtusifolium (border privet) | | |
Yes
| Maddox et al. (2010) |
| Ligustrum sinense (Chinese privet) | Widespread hedging plant |
Yes
| | |
| Lilioceris lilii (lily leaf beetle) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Limax maximus (leopard slug) | Accidental transport with vegetation, soil, machinery and packaging |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Limnocharis flava (yellow bur-head) | | |
Yes
| |
| Livistona chinensis (Chinese fan palm) | Widely commercialized as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2016) |
| Lonicera confusa | |
Yes
| | San Marcos Growers (2016) |
| Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Swearingen et al. (2010) |
| Ludwigia grandiflora (water primrose) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Okada et al. (2009) |
| Ludwigia palustris (marsh seedbox) | Aquatic ornamental, aquarium plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-NRCS (2020) |
| Ludwigia peploides (water primrose) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Washington State Department of Ecology (1994-2009) |
| Lumbricus rubellus | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Lumbricus terrestris | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Lygodium flexuosum (maidenhair creeper) | It is sold at nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-APHIS-PPQ (2009) |
| Lygodium microphyllum (old world climbing fern) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Lythrum salicaria (purple loosestrife) | |
Yes
| | USDA-NRCS (2007) |
| Malvaviscus arboreus (wax mallow) | Often planted as ornamental and potted plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Henny et al. (1994, publ. 1995) |
| Malvaviscus penduliflorus (Turk's cap mallow) | Garden ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Maranta arundinacea (arrowroot) | Cultivated and commercialized as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2018) |
| Marisa cornuarietis (giant ramshorn) | Associated with aquatic plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Megaplatypus mutatus | | |
Yes
| |
| Melaleuca quinquenervia (paperbark tree) | |
Yes
| | Dray et al. (2006) |
| Melinis repens (natal redtop) | Sold as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Langeland et al. (2008) |
| Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode) | Movement of infected plants. |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Merremia tuberosa (woodrose) | Ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Mansur (2001) |
| Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Mirabilis jalapa (four o'clock flower) | Commercially cultivated and available as an ornamental. |
Yes
|
Yes
| DAISIE (2016) |
| Miscanthus sinensis (eulalia) | Species available via nurseries in North America and Australia | |
Yes
| |
| Mononychellus tanajoa (cassava green mite) | Accidental introduction, rare pathway | |
Yes
| |
| Muntingia calabura (Jamaica cherry) | Traded as an ornamental and fruit tree. The tiny seeds can travel inadvertently in horticultural substrates |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hrusa et al. (2002) |
| Mussaenda erythrophylla (red flag bush) | Seeds and plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ogbu (2011) |
| Mussaenda philippica (Queen of Philippines) | Widely commercialized as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Alejandro et al. (2016) |
| Mycosphaerella gibsonii (needle blight of pine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Myriophyllum spicatum (spiked watermilfoil) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gregory (2003) |
| Nandina domestica (Nandina) | Widely sold at wholesale and retail nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Trueblood (2009); Wirth et al. (2004) |
| Neolecanium cornuparvum (magnolia scale) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Nopalea cochenillifera (cochineal cactus) | Available at various nurseries and online sites |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2017) |
| Nymphoides peltata (yellow floating-heart) | | |
Yes
| NWCB (2007) |
| Ocimum gratissimum (African basil) | Ornamental, aromatic, culinary plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA (2018) |
| Odontonema callistachyum (purple firespike) | Commercialised as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Daniel (1995) |
| Odontonema cuspidatum (Cardinal’s guard) | |
Yes
| | Daniel (1995) |
| Oeceoclades maculata (monk orchid) | Seeds and plants sold online |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive) | | |
Yes
| |
| Opogona sacchari (banana moth) | |
Yes
| | |
| Opuntia elatior (red-flower prickly pear) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Opuntia engelmannii (cactus apple) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Osteopilus septentrionalis (Cuban treefrog) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Oxalis corniculata (creeping woodsorrel) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pachira aquatica (pachira nut) | Propagated and sold in nurseries and exported |
Yes
|
Yes
| Duff (2012); Lee et al. (2002) |
| Palaemon elegans (rock shrimp) | |
Yes
| | |
| Pandanus tectorius (screw pine) | |
Yes
| | |
| Pantherophis guttatus (corn snake) | This species has been introduced via cargo and nurseries. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kraus (2009) |
| Paracoccus marginatus (papaya mealybug) | Long distance and local trade in infested plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| Macharia et al. (2017) |
| Passiflora edulis (passionfruit) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Passion fruit woodiness virus (passionfruit woodiness disease) | Accidental with exchange of live Passiflora plant material |
Yes
| | Baker et al. (2014) |
| Paysandisia archon (South American palm borer) | From Argentina to Italy, France and Spain. |
Yes
| | Riolo et al. (2004); Sarto and Aguilar (2001) |
| Pear blister canker viroid | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pectobacterium brasiliense (soft rot and blackleg of ornamentals and potato) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pelargonium zonale (horseshoe pelargonium) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Miller (1996); SANBI (2014); Walt JJAvan der (1977) |
| Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass) | Ornamental plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| Florabase (2012) |
| Pentas lanceolata (Egyptian starcluster) | Cultivated and commercialized as an ornamental and potted plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Petiveria alliacea (guinea hen weed) | Widely planted for traditional medicine purposes |
Yes
|
Yes
| Alegre and Clavo (2007) |
| Petrea volubilis (queen's wreath) | Plants and cuttings available over the internet and at nurseries worldwide |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA (2019); Dave's Garden (2019) |
| Phoenix canariensis (Canary Island date palm) | |
Yes
| | DiTomaso and Healy (2006) |
| Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo) | Sold as an ornamental |
Yes
| | Gucker (2009) |
| Phyllostachys aureosulcata (yellow groove bamboo) | Sold as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-APHIS (2012) |
| Physalis peruviana (Cape gooseberry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Phytophthora alni species complex (alder Phytophthora) | Spread by planting infected nursery material |
Yes
| | Jung and Blaschke (2004); Schumacher et al. (2005); Jung et al. (2016) |
| Phytophthora cinnamomi (Phytophthora dieback) | Probably very common |
Yes
|
Yes
| Davison et al. (2006) |
| Phytophthora kernoviae | Primary method of concern for spread of disease; on plant material and rootstock |
Yes
|
Yes
| EPPO (2013) |
| Phytophthora lateralis (Port-Orford-cedar root disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Brasier et al. (2012); Zobel et al. (1985) |
| Pinus elliottii (slash pine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gherardi (2007) |
| Planococcus citri (citrus mealybug) | Accidental introduction on imported plants, transport on workers, tools and machinery |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gerson (2016) |
| Plantago asiatica mosaic virus | Distribution of infected plants of cultivars of N. domestica through the nursery trade |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Plantago coronopus (Buck's-horn plantain) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Platydemus manokwari (New guinea flatworm) | P. manokwari can be readily transported in soil on potted plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| Sugiura (2008) |
| Plectranthus scutellarioides (coleus) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Missouri Botanical Garden (2014b) |
| Plum pox virus (sharka) | Nursery stock. |
Yes
| | |
| Plumbago auriculata (cape leadwort) | |
Yes
| | Dave’s Garden (2017) |
| Plumeria rubra (red frangipani) | Popular ornamental tree |
Yes
|
Yes
| Criley (2005) |
| Polyscias balfouriana (Balfour aralia) | Cultivated as a landscape ornamental and indoor potted plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Lowry and Plunkett (2010) |
| Polyscias fruticosa (ming aralia) | Ornamental and hedge plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Useful Tropical Plants (2020) |
| Polyscias guilfoylei (geranium aralia) | Popular ornamental plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2020) |
| Populus alba (silver-leaf poplar) | | |
Yes
| Jobling (1990) |
| Portulaca pilosa (kiss-me-quick) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Potamogeton crispus (curlyleaf pondweed) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Maki and Galatowitsch (2004) |
| Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug) | On ornamental plants, shrubs and trees |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pseudogynoxys chenopodioides (Mexican flamevine) | Ornamental vine |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2018) |
| Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava) | |
Yes
| | Samson (1989) |
| Pteris multifida (spider brake) | Available at nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Keener et al. (2020) |
| Pteris tripartita (giant brake) | Introduced to Florida through nursery trade |
Yes
|
Yes
| Huttleston (1962) |
| Ptychosperma elegans (solitaire palm) | Available at some nurseries. Rare |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Puccinia buxi | Anticipated possibility |
Yes
|
Yes
| NAPPO (2006) |
| Pyracantha coccinea (scarlet firethorn) | Sold in nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave’s Garden (2017) |
| Pyrrhalta luteola (elm leaf beetle) | From Europe to USA and Australia probably with European settlements |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Raoiella indica (red palm mite) | PPQ Plant Inspection required for untreated shipments in N. Atlantic/N.Pacific ports, USA |
Yes
| | |
| Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Downy rose-myrtle) | Deliberate, occasional |
Yes
|
Yes
| Campbell (1977); Staples and Herbst (2005) |
| Rhus typhina (staghorn sumac) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Rivina humilis (bloodberry) | Assumed |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Roystonea oleracea (Caribbean royal palm) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Rubus ellipticus (yellow Himalayan raspberry) | |
Yes
| | Gardner (1999) |
| Rubus niveus (Mysore raspberry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2014) |
| Rubus rosifolius (roseleaf raspberry) | Commercialised as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2010) |
| Ruellia simplex (Mexican petunia) | Grown as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hupp et al. (2013) |
| Russelia equisetiformis (firecracker plant) | Ornamental plant available at nurseries |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Saccharum ravennae (ravenna grass) | | |
Yes
| |
| Salvinia auriculata (giant salvinia) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2009) |
| Salvinia molesta (kariba weed) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| McFarland et al. (2004) |
| Sambucus canadensis (American black elderberry) | Commercialized for its fruits and as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Charlebois et al. (2010) |
| Sanchezia parvibracteata (sanchezia) | Ornamental plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Daniel (1995) |
| Sanchezia speciosa (shrubby whitevein) | Widely commercialized |
Yes
|
Yes
| Paydar et al. (2013) |
| Sansevieria hyacinthoides (African bowstring hemp) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2012) |
| Schefflera actinophylla (umbrella tree) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gucker (2011) |
| Senecio glastifolius (holly-leaved senecio) | |
Yes
| | |
| Senna alata (candle bush) | Plants sold locally and over the internet for ornamental purposes |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sesbania grandiflora (sesbania) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Setaria palmifolia (palm grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Solanum capsicoides (cockroach berry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Solanum seaforthianum (Brazilian nightshade) | Planted as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gallagher et al. (2010) |
| Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) | Equipment, planting material - accidental | |
Yes
| ISSG (2014) |
| Solenopsis richteri (black imported fire ant) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Lofgren et al. (1975); Wilson and Brown (1958) |
| Spartium junceum (Spanish broom) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Spathodea campanulata (African tulip tree) | |
Yes
| | ICRAF (2008) |
| Spathoglottis plicata (Philippine ground orchid) | Used as ornamentals and potted-plants |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Spermacoce verticillata (shrubby false buttonwood) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sphaerodactylus vincenti (Saint Vincent dwarf gecko) | Possible invasion pathway by humans |
Yes
| | Daltry (2009) |
| Sphagneticola trilobata (wedelia) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Stachytarpheta urticifolia (rattail) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kuo (2003) |
| Sugarcane grassy shoot phytoplasma (grassy shoot of sugarcane) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| sugarcane white leaf phytoplasma (white leaf of sugarcane) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Symphyotrichum novi-belgii (New York aster) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Syngonium podophyllum (arrowhead vine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2012); PIER (2012) |
| Tabebuia rosea (pink poui) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tagetes erecta (Mexican marigold) | Widely commercialized as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA (2018) |
| Tamarix ramosissima (saltcedar) | Still on sale |
Yes
| | |
| Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) | Due to its tendency to nest in potted plants, these must be considered a risk |
Yes
|
Yes
| Appel et al. (2004) |
| Terminalia muelleri (Australian almond) | Cultivated as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gilman and Watson (1993) |
| Thunbergia alata (black eyed Susan) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Whistler (2000) |
| Thunbergia erecta (bush clockvine) | Cultivated as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gilman (1999) |
| Thunbergia fragrans (whitelady) | Cultivated as ornamental for its attractive flowers |
Yes
|
Yes
| Starr et al. (2003) |
| Thunbergia grandiflora (Bengal trumpet) | Plants are used as ornamentals |
Yes
|
Yes
| Starr et al. (2003) |
| Thymophylla tenuiloba (Dahlberg daisy) | Seeds are available at various internet sites worldwide |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tithonia rotundifolia (red sunflower) | Widely commercialized as garden ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2018) |
| Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (Tomato brown rugose fruit virus) | Could be more important for local distribution of the virus |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus (Tomato New Delhi virus) | Trade of seedlings |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (leaf curl) | Export/import of infected seedlings. |
Yes
| | Polston and Anderson (1997) |
| Toxicodendron succedaneum (wax tree) | Commercialized as ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Trachelospermum jasminoides (star-jasmine) | Ornamental and ground cover |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2017) |
| Tradescantia pallida (purple queen) | Commonly planted as an ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Foxcroft et al. (2007) |
| Tradescantia spathacea (boat lily) | Plants used as ornamentals |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG (2012) |
| Tradescantia zebrina (wandering jew) | Commonly sold | |
Yes
| Biosecurity Queensland (2012) |
| Trimezia steyermarkii (yellow walking iris) | Ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Triphasia trifolia (limeberry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS (2012) |
| Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail) | | |
Yes
| USDA-NRCS (2010) |
| Verbena rigida (stiff verbena) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Royal Horticultural Society (2015) |
| Veronicella cubensis (Cuban slug) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-APHIS (2010) |
| Vespula pensylvanica (western yellowjacket) | Christmas tree trade |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Vitex rotundifolia (beach vitex) | Excepting North Carolina, it is legal to propagate in the USA and remains in the nursery trade |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cousins et al. (2010a); North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (2015) |
| Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Wisteria sinensis (Chinese wisteria) | Popular ornamental plant, widely sold internationally |
Yes
|
Yes
| Trusty et al. (2008) |
| Xylophilus ampelinus (canker of grapevine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Yucca aloifolia (Spanish bayonet) | | |
Yes
| Smith et al. (2012) |
| Zachrysia provisoria (Cuban brown snail) | Occasional, accidental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Robinson and Fields (2004) |
| Zeuxine strateumatica (soldier’s orchid) | Unintentionally with other species in nursery pots |
Yes
|
Yes
| Dave's Garden (2018) |
| Zinnia peruviana (Peruvian zinnia) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
