| Abelmoschus moschatus (musk mallow) | Cultivated for its seeds (oil extraction) |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Abrus precatorius (rosary pea) | Species is cultivated for ornamental, medicinal, and food additive purposes |
Yes
|
Yes
| Motooka et al.,
2003; Padua et al.,
1999; Weber,
2003 |
| Abutilon grandifolium (hairy Indian mallow) | |
Yes
| | |
| Abutilon hirtum (Indian mallow) | Cultivated for fibres for ropes and clothing. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Achigan-Dako,
2010; Brussel,
2004 |
| Acacia angustissima (prairie acacia) | Intercropped to improve crop production. |
Yes
| | Dzowela,
1994; Paula et al.,
2015 |
| Acacia auriculiformis (northern black wattle) | Used for intercropping |
Yes
|
Yes
| Turnbull and Awang,
1997 |
| Acacia glauca (wild dividivi) | |
Yes
| | |
| Acacia mearnsii (black wattle) | As a shade tree and a tree fallow |
Yes
|
Yes
| Wiersum,
1991 |
| Acanthospermum australe (spiny-bur) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Acarapis woodi (honeybee mite) | Migratory beekeepers moved bees from southern US states northward to pollinate crops |
Yes
| | Woodward and Quinn,
2011 |
| Achatina fulica (giant African land snail) | Accidental |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Aegilops cylindrica | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Aeginetia indica (forest ghost flower) | Not mentioned in references but could be a possible way of seed movement | |
Yes
| |
| Aeschynomene americana (shyleaf) | Hay crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cook et al.,
2005 |
| African cassava mosaic virus (African cassava mosaic) | ACMV is frequently spread via planting of contaminated cassava cuttings |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016; PROSEA,
2016; PROSEA,
2016 |
| Agave fourcroydes (henequen) | Cultivated for fibre production |
Yes
|
Yes
| Colunga-GarcíaMarín,
2003 |
| Agave sisalana (sisal hemp) | This species is cultivated as a source of fibre |
Yes
|
Yes
| Rehm and Espig,
1991 |
| Ageratum conyzoides (billy goat weed) | Weed in agricultural lands |
Yes
| | PROTA,
2016 |
| Ageratum houstonianum (Blue billygoatweed) | Can spread in contaminated agricultural produce |
Yes
|
Yes
| BioNET-EAFRINET,
2016 |
| Agropyron cristatum (crested wheatgrass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Zlatnik,
1999 |
| Agrostis capillaris (common bent) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Albizia adinocephala (cream albizia) | Alibizia adinocephala is preferentially used as shade for coffee in parts of western Costa Rica, as it keeps its leaves during the dry season | |
Yes
| Barrance et al.,
2004 |
| Albizia carbonaria (carbonero) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Barneby and Grimes,
1996 |
| Albizia lebbeck (Indian siris) | Nitrogen-fixing species; has been intentionally planted for shade for livestock and for cash crops such as coffee and tea, erosion control, and as an ornamental tree |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Alectra vogelii (yellow witchweed) | Ancient, probably with spread of cowpea cultivation in Africa. No studies on origins or movement |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly) | |
Yes
| | |
| Alocasia cucullata (Chinese taro) | Corms consumed by humans | |
Yes
| Useful Tropical Plants,
2019 |
| Alocasia macrorrhizos (giant taro) | Planted for human consumption |
Yes
|
Yes
| Manner,
2011 |
| Aloe vera (true aloe) | Widely cultivated for agricultural and medicinal uses |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2017 |
| Alopecurus myosuroides (black-grass) | | |
Yes
| Bond et al.,
2007 |
| Alopecurus pratensis (meadow foxtail) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2015 |
| Alpinia zerumbet (shell ginger) | Grown as a spice crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| UNIDO,
2005 |
| Alternanthera sessilis (sessile joyweed) | Weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1997 |
| Alysicarpus vaginalis (alyce clover) | Species widely cultivated in agricultural settings as a forage and cover crop and soil improver |
Yes
|
Yes
| Duke,
1981; Hanelt et al.,
2001 |
| Amaranthus dubius (spleen amaranth) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Grubben,
2004 |
| Amaranthus spinosus (spiny amaranth) | Weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Motooka et al.,
2003 |
| Amaranthus tricolor (edible amaranth) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Amaranthus tuberculatus (rough-fruited water-hemp) | It is a weed of field crops; invasion favoured by certain farm practices |
Yes
|
Yes
| Costea et al.,
2005 |
| Ambrosia tenuifolia (lacy ragweed) | Weed in arable land |
Yes
|
Yes
| Montagnani et al.,
2017 |
| Amelanchier lamarckii (snowy mespilus) | | |
Yes
| NOBANIS,
2009 |
| Anastrepha fraterculus (South American fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Anastrepha grandis (South American cucurbit fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Anastrepha ludens (Mexican fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Anastrepha obliqua (West Indian fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Anastrepha serpentina (sapodilla fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Anastrepha striata (guava fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Anastrepha suspensa (Caribbean fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem) | Seed contaminant, machinery and imported soil |
Yes
|
Yes
| PIER,
2008; Quattrocchi,
2006 |
| Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge) | | |
Yes
| |
| Anguina tritici (wheat seed gall nematode) | Rare, accidental | |
Yes
| |
| Annona reticulata (bullock's heart) | Intentionally dispersed across the globe by humans from its American origin for cultivation. |
Yes
|
Yes
| FAO EcoCrop,
2014; Jansen et al.,
1991; Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Anolis wattsi (Watts' anole) | Jump dispersal at distances greater than 1 km/year in Trinidad | |
Yes
| White and Hailey,
2006 |
| Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy) | A weed of cultivated land |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2016 |
| Argemone ochroleuca (pale Mexican pricklypoppy) | | |
Yes
| BioNet-EAFRINET,
2011 |
| Arion vulgaris (Spanish slug) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Rabitsch,
2006; Weidema,
2006 |
| Arracacia xanthorrhiza (arracacha) | Commercial crop and a cash crop for local farmers, mainly in tropical highlands |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hermann,
1997 |
| Arrhenatherum elatius (false oat-grass) | Prevalent cause of introduction |
Yes
|
Yes
| Pfitzenmeyer,
1962 |
| Artemisia biennis (biennial wormwood) | Accidental | |
Yes
| Kegode and Darbyshire,
2013 |
| Arthraxon hispidus (small carpetgrass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Arthurdendyus triangulatus (New Zealand flatworm) | Possibly from Scotland to the Faroe Islands with potatoes, also via manure, silage & machinery |
Yes
|
Yes
| Boag et al.,
1999; Mather and Christensen,
1992; Moore et al.,
1998; Murchie et al.,
2003 |
| Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit) | Cultivated for fruits and seeds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ragone,
2011 |
| Arundo donax (giant reed) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| PIER,
2007 |
| Averrhoa bilimbi (bilimbi) | Species has been introduced as a food crop in all tropical parts of the world |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016; PROSEA,
2016; PROSEA,
2016 |
| Axonopus fissifolius | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bactericera cockerelli (tomato/potato psyllid) | |
Yes
| | |
| Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bactrocera dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bactrocera zonata (peach fruit fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bambusa bambos (giant thorny bamboo) | Cultivated throughout the tropics for its culms |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2015 |
| Banana bunchy top virus (bunchy top of banana) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Basella alba (malabar spinach) | Small-scale production mixed with other vegetables | |
Yes
| PROTA,
2017 |
| Batis maritima (saltwort) | |
Yes
| | |
| Bidens pilosa (blackjack) | Common weed of crops |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1977 |
| Bipolaris victoriae (Victoria blight of oats) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bixa orellana (annatto) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Morton,
1960 |
| Boerhavia diffusa (red spiderling) | Weed on agricultural land |
Yes
|
Yes
| Muzila,
2006 |
| Brassica juncea (mustard) | Deliberately introduced as a crop in most temperate and tropical areas | |
Yes
| Office of the Gene Technology Regulator,
2008 |
| Brassica rapa (field mustard) | Cultivated worldwide |
Yes
|
Yes
| Encyclopedia of Life,
2018; Flora of North,
2018 |
| Bromus hordeaceus (soft brome) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Howard,
1998; Smith,
1968 |
| Bromus secalinus (rye brome) | spreads as a contaminant of cereal seed |
Yes
| | Afonin et al.,
2016 |
| Buddleja asiatica (dog tail) | Inter-island movement of ornamental plants, farming equipment and vehicles etc. |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Bugula neritina (brown bryozoan) | | |
Yes
| |
| Bunias orientalis (Turkish warty-cabbage) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Jehlik and Slavik,
1968; Laivins et al.,
2006 |
| Calacarus carinatus (purple tea mite) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| IPPC-Secretariat,
2005 |
| Calopogonium caeruleum (jicama) | Widely introduced as cover-crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cook et al.,
2005 |
| Cananga odorata (ylang-ylang) | Species was introduced from Philippines to other Pacific Islands for crop production as early as 1770 |
Yes
|
Yes
| Yusuf and Sinohin,
1999 |
| Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Vargas-Ayala et al.,
2000 |
| Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum (zebra chip) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris (yellow disease phytoplasmas) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma australiense | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma phoenicium | Trade in plants or seedlings (probably) |
Yes
| | Verdin et al.,
2004 |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma rubi (witches'-broom phytoplasma disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Candidatus Phytoplasma trifolii (clover proliferation phytoplasma) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Canna indica (canna lilly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Capsicum annuum (bell pepper) | Cultivated as a crop plant for hundreds of years in the Americas, and now around the world |
Yes
|
Yes
| Basu and De,
2003 |
| Capsicum baccatum (pepper) | Cultivated as a food and spice crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cardamine flexuosa (wavy bittercress) | Agricultural weed in rice fields, crops and orchards |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kudoh et al.,
1993 |
| Carludovica palmata (Panama hat plant) | For making hats and baskets |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Cassia grandis (pink shower) | Used as live fence, re-vegetation pioneer, and for intercropping systems |
Yes
|
Yes
| ICRAF,
2014 |
| Cecropia peltata (trumpet tree) | As a shade tree for coffee plantations | |
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Cenchrus biflorus (Indian sandbur) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cenchrus ciliaris (Buffel grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Marshall et al.,
2012 |
| Centaurea melitensis (Maltese starthistle) | | |
Yes
| DiTomaso and Healy,
2007; Dunn,
1905 |
| Centaurea solstitialis (yellow starthistle) | |
Yes
| | |
| Ceratitis rosa (Natal fruit fly) | Possible introduction through infested agricultural produce |
Yes
|
Yes
| White and Elson-Harris,
1994 |
| Chilo suppressalis (striped rice stem borer) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Chloris virgata (feather finger grass) | Potential seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2015 |
| Chondrilla juncea (rush skeletonweed) | |
Yes
| | |
| Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) | Common as a fallow species and probably spread during clearance, also to control Imperata |
Yes
|
Yes
| Chevalier,
1949 |
| Cinnamomum burmanni (padang cassia) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Franck,
2012 |
| Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Citrus leprosis virus C (leprosis of citrus) | Infected mites can be carried in seedlings from citrus nurseries to farmers' fields. |
Yes
| | |
| Cleome rutidosperma (fringed spiderflower) | Weed in agricultural land |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1991 |
| Cleome viscosa (Asian spiderflower) | Weed on rice and sugarcane plantations |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2015 |
| Clerodendrum bungei (rose glorybower) | Species is a weed of cultivated areas and can spread by portions of roots within soil |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cocksfoot mottle virus (Cocksfoot mottle virus) | Frequency of introduction not reported. Spread by vector and by mechanical transmission probable. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Campbell and Guy,
2001 |
| Coconut cadang-cadang viroid (cadang cadang disease) | CCCVd is associated with plantation crops. Seed and pollen accessed internationally for coconut. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hanold and Randles,
1998; Hanold and Randles,
2003 |
| Cocos nucifera (coconut) | Planted in plantations as overhead shade tree |
Yes
|
Yes
| Chan and Elevitch,
2006 |
| Codiaeum variegatum (garden croton) | |
Yes
| | Hettiarachchi et al.,
2003 |
| Coix lacryma-jobi (Job's-tears) | Planted as minor cereal. Introduced and cultivated in many countries as a food grain |
Yes
|
Yes
| Schaaffhausen,
1952; PROTA,
2017 |
| Colocasia esculenta (taro) | Corms, stems and leaves are edible and planted for human consumption |
Yes
|
Yes
| Safo-Kantaka,
2004 |
| Coniothyrium glycines (red leaf blotch) | | |
Yes
| Hartman et al.,
1987 |
| Corchorus hirtus (Orinoco jute) | |
Yes
| | Belay,
2011 |
| Cordyline fruticosa (ti plant) | Deliberate; migration; horticulture |
Yes
| | Hinkle,
2007; Simpson,
2000 |
| Coriandrum sativum (coriander) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cornu aspersum (common garden snail) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Crassocephalum crepidioides (redflower ragleaf) | Consumed as a vegetable |
Yes
|
Yes
| Denton,
2004 |
| Crotalaria maypurensis (rattlebox weed) | Green manure in plantations |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2015 |
| Crotalaria retusa (rattleweed) | Fibre crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Prota4U,
2013 |
| Crotalaria spectabilis (showy rattlepod) | Contaminant in crop seeds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Maddox et al.,
2011 |
| Croton argenteus (silver July croton) | Weed in agricultural lands |
Yes
|
Yes
| Torres et al.,
2010 |
| Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus (Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows) | Possible through dissemination of infected seedlings (rare, accidental) |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cuphea carthagenensis (Colombian waxweed) | |
Yes
| | Pio,
1980 |
| Cuscuta campestris (field dodder) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Cyanthillium cinereum (little ironweed) | Probably dispersed as a seed and crop contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1997 |
| Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass) | Cultivated as an industrial crop for its essential oils |
Yes
|
Yes
| Oyen,
1999 |
| Cyperus difformis (small-flowered nutsedge) | As a contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1979 |
| Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Dacus ciliatus (lesser pumpkin fly) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Datura ferox (fierce thornapple) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Torres et al.,
2013b |
| Daucus carota (carrot) | Wild carrot seed introduced as seed or grain contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| NOBANIS,
2015 |
| Deroceras laeve (meadow slug) | Accidental |
Yes
| | AnimalBase,
2015 |
| Derris elliptica (tuba root) | Cultivated for its roots |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Descurainia sophia (flixweed) | |
Yes
| | Rutledge and McLendon,
1996 |
| Dickeya solani (black leg disease of potato) | Accidentally introduced into across Europe and Israel through via infected potato seed tubers |
Yes
|
Yes
| Toth et al.,
2011 |
| Digitaria bicornis (Asian crabgrass) | Present in crop fields, possibly a seed contaminant, soil contaminant and in cultivation waste |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Digitaria ciliaris (southern crabgrass) | Grass crop for haymaking |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1979 |
| Digitaria fuscescens (yellow crab grass) | In rice fields, possibly a seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Dioscorea alata (white yam) | Edible underground tubers (yams) and bulbils |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Dioscorea bulbifera (air potato) | Edible underground tubers (yams) |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG,
2012 |
| Dioscorea cayenensis (Guinea yam) | widely cultivated species |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2017 |
| Diplodia seriata (grapevine trunk disease) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Dreyfusia nordmannianae (silver fir adelges) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Havill and Foottit,
2007; Kirkeby-Thomsen,
1998 |
| Dysphania ambrosioides (Mexican tea) | Leaf vegetable, aromatic herb, industrial uses |
Yes
|
Yes
| Prota4U,
2013 |
| East Asian Passiflora virus | | |
Yes
| |
| Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass) | Common weed in rice |
Yes
|
Yes
| Maun and Barrett,
1986 |
| Echinochloa pyramidalis | | |
Yes
| |
| Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth) | | |
Yes
| |
| Erigeron bellioides (bellorita) | Weed of cultivated grounds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Liogier and Martorell,
2000 |
| Eriobotrya japonica (loquat) | Grown for its edible fruits |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2018 |
| Erionota thrax (banana skipper) | | |
Yes
| |
| Erionota torus (banana skipper) | Movement of banana planting material with early stages | |
Yes
| Cock,
2015 |
| Erythrina berteroana (coralbean) | Planted as a shade tree in plantations |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Euschistus heros (Neotropical brown stink bug) | Commercial trade using roads; global warming |
Yes
|
Yes
| Saluso et al.,
2011 |
| Falcataria moluccana (batai wood) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Fallopia convolvulus (black bindweed) | Contaminant in cereals crops |
Yes
|
Yes
| Rutledge and McLendon,
1996 |
| Ferrisia virgata (striped mealybug) | Accidental introduction on plants; transport on used farm machinery |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue) | Widely used for fodder and turf |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-NRCS,
2016 |
| Festuca pratensis (meadow fescue) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Darbyshire,
2007 |
| Ficus benjamina (weeping fig) | Unintentionally introduced by agriculture |
Yes
|
Yes
| DAISIE,
2014 |
| Ficus carica (common fig) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hanelt et al.,
2001 |
| Ficus elastica (rubber plant) | Species was formerly an economic crop for rubber production |
Yes
|
Yes
| Coventry,
1906; Strettell,
1876; Tawan,
2000; Whistler,
2000 |
| Ficus pumila (creeping fig) | Cultivated in Asia to make jelies |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hanelt et al.,
2001; Mabberly,
2008 |
| Ficus religiosa (sacred fig tree) | Sometimes grown as a fodder crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Fimbristylis littoralis (lesser fimbristylis) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1977 |
| Flemingia lineata (wild hops) | Used as green manure in Asia | |
Yes
| |
| Flemingia strobilifera (wild hops) | | |
Yes
| |
| Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) | Spice and medicinal plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Forficula auricularia (European earwig) | accidental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Crumb et al.,
1941; Weems and Skelley,
2010 |
| Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry) | Primary cause of introduction outside of the native range e.g. to Hawaii, Reunion and New Zealand |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG,
2013; PIER,
2013 |
| Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp) | A fibre plant and ornamental |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kew,
1917 |
| Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense tropical race 4 (TR4) | | |
Yes
| |
| Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. medicaginis (fusarium wilt of alfalfa) | | |
Yes
| |
| Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. niveum (Fusarium wilt of watermelon) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016; PROSEA,
2016 |
| Galinsoga parviflora (gallant soldier) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Damalas,
2008 |
| Globodera pallida (white potato cyst nematode) | Peru and Bolivia to Europe |
Yes
|
Yes
| Turner and Evans,
1998 |
| Globodera rostochiensis (yellow potato cyst nematode) | Peru to Europe |
Yes
|
Yes
| Turner and Evans,
1998 |
| Glyceria maxima (reed sweet-grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| LAMBERT,
1947 |
| Gomphrena globosa (globe amaranth) | | |
Yes
| Flora of Pakistan,
2015 |
| Grapevine red blotch virus (grapevine red blotch virus) | The careless selection of infected grape propagation material results in long-distance or local spread of GRBV |
Yes
|
Yes
| Sudarshana et al.,
2015; Bahder et al.,
2016a; PROSEA,
2016; PROSEA,
2016; Dalton et al.,
2019 |
| Grevillea robusta (silky oak) | Extensively planted as “shade tree” in tea and coffee plantations |
Yes
|
Yes
| Harwood et al.,
1997 |
| Gymnandrosoma aurantianum (citrus fruit borer) | The most likely mode of dispersal is in the movement of fruit, either in baggage or commodity consignments |
Yes
|
Yes
| PestID,
2018 |
| Halyomorpha halys (brown marmorated stink bug) | Deliberate dispersal during search for host plant resources. Moves between agricultural crops throug |
Yes
|
Yes
| Nielsen et al.,
2013; Wiman et al.,
2013b |
| Haplaxius crudus (American palm cixiid) | |
Yes
| | |
| Haplodiplosis marginata (saddle gall midge) | | |
Yes
| Skuhravý et al.,
1993 |
| Harmonia axyridis (harlequin ladybird) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Heliocarpus donnellsmithii (majagua) | Shade tree in coffee plantations |
Yes
|
Yes
| Macía,
1999 |
| Helminthotheca echioides (bristly oxtongue) | Seeds spread via irrigation |
Yes
|
Yes
| Tosso et al.,
1986 |
| Heracleum sosnowskyi (Sosnowskyi's hogweed) | Main cause of introduction to many countries/regions was cultivation as a fodder crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| EPPO,
2008; Kabuce,
2006; Nielsen et al.,
2005 |
| Heterodera glycines (soybean cyst nematode) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Hirschfeldia incana (shortpod mustard) | |
Yes
| | South East Natural Resources Management Board,
2009 |
| Holcus lanatus (common velvet grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Hop stunt viroid (hop stunt viroid) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hadidi et al.,
2003 |
| Hymenula cerealis (Cephalosporium stripe) | Movement in infested host debris through natural processes or human intervention. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Bockus et al.,
2010 |
| Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane) | Grown worldwide as a medicinal plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Hypothenemus hampei (coffee berry borer) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Hyptis suaveolens (pignut) | | |
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Indigofera hirsuta (hairy indigo) | Used as a cover crop and as 'green manure' |
Yes
|
Yes
| Djarwaningsih,
1997 |
| Ipomoea nil (white edge morning-glory) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Vibrans,
2017 |
| Iris yellow spot virus (iris yellow spot) | Via seedlings, infected bulbs, and thrips movement. Virus overwinters in volunteer onions and weeds |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gent et al.,
2006; Pappu et al.,
2009 |
| Isatis tinctoria (dyer's woad) | Historically extensive deliberate introductions |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hurry,
1930 |
| Jatropha curcas (jatropha) | | |
Yes
| Pitt,
1999 |
| Jatropha gossypiifolia (bellyache bush) | | |
Yes
| |
| Juncus ensifolius (swordleaf rush) | Accidental contaminant in hay, peat or soil |
Yes
|
Yes
| Kirschner,
2002 |
| Kuehneola uredinis (Cane and leaf rust) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ellis et al.,
1991 |
| Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd) | Grown for its fruits |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2018 |
| Launaea intybacea (bitter lettuce) | Weed in agricultural land |
Yes
|
Yes
| Liogier,
1997 |
| Lawsonia inermis (Egyptian privet) | Commercial production of henna dye |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2017 |
| Lemna aequinoctialis (lesser duckweed) | In rice fields |
Yes
|
Yes
| Pinke et al.,
2014 |
| Lepidium virginicum (Virginian peppercress) | As grain contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop) | Weed of agricultural lands |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Leptospermum scoparium (manuka) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Leucanthemum vulgare (oxeye daisy) | Via contaminated pasture seed |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Limnocharis flava (yellow bur-head) | | |
Yes
| |
| Linaria vulgaris (common toadflax) | As contaminant in crop seed |
Yes
| | |
| Liriomyza cicerina | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Spencer,
1973 |
| Luffa acutangula (angled luffa) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2016 |
| Lumbricus rubellus | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Lumbricus terrestris | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Lupinus angustifolius (narrow-leaf lupin) | Cultivated as a legume pulse |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2017 |
| Lupinus polyphyllus (garden lupin) | Deliberate |
Yes
|
Yes
| NOBANIS,
2015 |
| Malva pusilla (round-leaved mallow) | Crop seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Makowski and Morrison,
1989 |
| Mangifera indica (mango) | Fruit production |
Yes
|
Yes
| Bally,
2006 |
| Manilkara zapota (sapodilla) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Maranta arundinacea (arrowroot) | Cultivated for its roots |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2018 |
| Medicago lupulina (black medick) | Weed in agricultural land; seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2017 |
| Melaleuca quinquenervia (paperbark tree) | |
Yes
| | Dray et al.,
2006 |
| Melilotus albus (honey clover) | Grown as fodder in many places |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gucker,
2009 |
| Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Melinis repens (natal redtop) | Hay crop and pasture grass introduction to Americas, Australia |
Yes
| | Langeland et al.,
2008 |
| Meloidogyne enterolobii (Pacara earpod tree root-knot nematode) | rare | |
Yes
| |
| Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode) | Movement of soil on machinery. Movement of infected plant material. |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal) | Cultivated as a useful plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| PFAF,
2013 |
| Microlaena stipoides (meadow rice grass, meadow ricegrass) | Deliberate in natural range as pasture; accidental as seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Biological Records Centre,
2012; Huxtable and Whalley,
1999 |
| Microstegium vimineum (Nepalese browntop) | |
Yes
| | Warren et al.,
2010 |
| Mikania micrantha (bitter vine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Mimosa diplotricha (creeping sensitive plant) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| DAF,
2016; Parsons and Cuthbertson,
1992 |
| Molothrus ater (brown-headed cowbird) | | |
Yes
| |
| Momordica charantia (bitter gourd) | Cultivated for edible fruits |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1997 |
| Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot) | Dominant dispersal, accidental, associated with cocoa production |
Yes
| | |
| Monochamus leuconotus (white coffee stem borer) | Wide distribution - destructive pest. | |
Yes
| Schoeman,
1994 |
| Mononychellus tanajoa (cassava green mite) | Accidental, common pathway |
Yes
| | Yaninek et al.,
1989b |
| Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry) | Cultivated for its fruits and leaves |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Moringa oleifera (horse radish tree) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2017 |
| Morus nigra (black mulberry) | Widely cultivated |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hanelt et al.,
2001; Randall,
2012; Wyk BEvan,
2005 |
| Mucuna pruriens (velvet bean) | Cultivated as a cover crop and fodder/forage crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Duke,
1981 |
| Nasturtium microphyllum (one-row watercress) | | |
Yes
| |
| Nelsonia canescens (blue pussyleaf) | Weed in agricultural land |
Yes
|
Yes
| Randall,
2012 |
| Neonotonia wightii (perennial soybean) | Widely introduced forage crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cook et al.,
2005 |
| Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Ocimum gratissimum (African basil) | Cultivated for the essential oil extracted from leaves and stems |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Ocimum tenuiflorum (holy basil) | Cultivated both commercially and locally for use as culinary and medicinal herb |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Oldenlandia corymbosa (flat-top mille graines) | Weed in paddy fields and farmlands |
Yes
|
Yes
| Flora of China Editorial Committee,
2018 |
| Oldenlandia lancifolia (calycose mille graines) | Weed of paddy fields and cereal crops |
Yes
|
Yes
| Randall,
2017 |
| Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (wild olive) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Olea europaea subsp. europaea (European olive) | Grown as a cash crop in many countries |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Opogona sacchari (banana moth) | | |
Yes
| |
| Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Orobanche cernua (nodding broomrape) | Potential introduction on contaminated crop seed |
Yes
| | |
| Orobanche cumana (sunflower broomrape) | Spread in contaminated sunflower seed |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Orobanche ramosa (branched broomrape) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Jacobsohn,
1984 |
| Oryza barthii | Common on a local basis. Rare at distance but potential. |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Paederia foetida (skunkvine) | Grown as a medicinal crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Nath et al.,
2015 |
| Paracoccus marginatus (papaya mealybug) | Local trade in live planting material | |
Yes
| Macharia et al.,
2017 |
| Parentucellia viscosa (yellow glandweed) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| PAG,
2000 |
| Paspalum conjugatum (buffalo grass) | Weed in crop, tree plantations and pastures |
Yes
|
Yes
| Queensland Government,
2018 |
| Paspalum distichum (knotgrass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Paspalum urvillei (Vasey grass) | Widely introduced as a pasture grass around the world |
Yes
| | Bowen and Hollinger,
2002; Randall,
2012 |
| Paspalum vaginatum (seashore paspalum) | Via cultivation equipment | |
Yes
| |
| Passiflora edulis (passionfruit) | Garden and crop plant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Akamine et al.,
1974; Martin and Nakasone,
1970 |
| Passiflora tarminiana (banana passionfruit) | Cultivated for fruit and flowers |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Pastinaca sativa (parsnip) | Deliberate dispersal as a crop species. Less common now |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cain et al.,
2010 |
| Pear blister canker viroid | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pectobacterium brasiliense (soft rot and blackleg of ornamentals and potato) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pectobacterium parmentieri (black leg disease of potato) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pelargonium odoratissimum (apple geranium) | Cultivated for use in medicine, food preparations, essential oil, and as an ornamental plant. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hanelt et al.,
2001; PFAF,
2014; USDA-ARS,
2014 |
| Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu grass) | Widely introduced as a forage crop |
Yes
| | |
| Pennisetum polystachion (mission grass) | As a catch crop for stemborers |
Yes
|
Yes
| Matama-Kauma et al.,
2006; Ndemah et al.,
2002 |
| Peronosclerospora philippinensis (Philippine downy mildew of maize) | Movement of infected seeds or some abiotic agents like wind and air |
Yes
|
Yes
| Murray,
2009 |
| Peronosclerospora sorghi (sorghum downy mildew) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Frederiksen et al.,
1970; Toler et al.,
1959 |
| Persicaria chinensis (Chinese knotweed) | Weed in tea plantations |
Yes
|
Yes
| Tjitrosemito and Jaya,
1990 |
| Phaseolus lunatus (lima bean) | Cultivated for its edible seeds |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROTA,
2014 |
| Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) | | |
Yes
| |
| Phleum pratense (timothy grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Physalis peruviana (Cape gooseberry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pimenta dioica (allspice) | Species is used as a crop in many countries |
Yes
|
Yes
| Parthasarathy et al.,
2008 |
| Planococcus citri (citrus mealybug) | Accidental introduction on imported plants, transport on used farm machinery |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gerson,
2016 |
| Plasmodiophora brassicae (club root) | P. brassicae resting spores can survive upwards of fifteen years. Infested soil can be easily moved on machinery, livestock, people, or by the environment. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Wallenhammar,
1996 |
| Plectranthus amboinicus (Indian borage) | Widely cultivated in home gardens and commercially for culinary, medicinal, and ornamental use |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2014 |
| Plum pox virus (sharka) | Budwood exchange. |
Yes
| | |
| Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth) | |
Yes
| | |
| Poa annua (annual meadowgrass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1997 |
| Poa compressa (Canada bluegrass) | |
Yes
| | Hitchcock,
1951 |
| Polygonum arenastrum (common knotweed) | Accidental | |
Yes
| Burnett and Moore,
2014 |
| Pomacea maculata | May have been introduced accidentally with other species |
Yes
| | Mochida,
1991; Teo,
2004 |
| Portulaca pilosa (kiss-me-quick) | a seed contaminant of hay and grain |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ridley,
1930 |
| Pseudocercospora fuligena (black leaf mould) | | |
Yes
| |
| Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug) | On infested plants e.g. grapevines, fruit trees, and on fruits | |
Yes
| |
| Pseudomonas cichorii (bacterial blight of endive) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Pseudorasbora parva (topmouth gudgeon) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Copp et al.,
2005a |
| Pterocarpus indicus (red sandalwood) | Planted as windbreak and soil improver (nitrogen fixing) in croplands |
Yes
|
Yes
| Thomson,
2006 |
| Ralstonia solanacearum (bacterial wilt of potato) | Frequent accidental or deliberate for use as biocontrol agent for Hedychium gardnerianum in tropical |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Rhamphicarpa fistulosa | Presumably dispersed through informal (farmer-to-farmer) seed exchange | |
Yes
| |
| Rhaponticum repens (Russian knapweed) | Accidental introduction with other species |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Rosa rugosa (rugosa rose) | For commercial production |
Yes
|
Yes
| Weidema,
2006 |
| Rottboellia cochinchinensis (itch grass) | Contaminated farm machinery | |
Yes
| Arkansas State Plant Board,
2008 |
| Rubus ellipticus (yellow Himalayan raspberry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gardner,
1999 |
| Rubus niveus (Mysore raspberry) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG,
2014 |
| Sansevieria hyacinthoides (African bowstring hemp) | Used as a fibre crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Langeland et al.,
2008 |
| Sansevieria trifasciata (mother-in-law’s tongue) | Fibre crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| ISSG,
2012 |
| Sclerophthora rayssiae var. zeae (brown stripe downy mildew of maize) | Unless seed is contaminated with mycelium or oospores |
Yes
| | PROSEA,
2016; Singh and Renfro,
1971 |
| Senna hirsuta (hairy senna) | Green manure and shade trees in coffee plantations | |
Yes
| |
| Senna spectabilis (whitebark senna) | Plant has been introduced and cultivated widely |
Yes
|
Yes
| PIER,
2014 |
| Senna surattensis (golden senna) | Grown as hedge and shade tree in plantations and agricultural areas |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hanelt et al.,
2001; Little and Skolmen,
1989; Sosef and Maesen,
1997 |
| Sesamia cretica (greater sugarcane borer) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sesbania sericea (silky sesban) | Used as green manure |
Yes
|
Yes
| Ipor and Oyen,
1997 |
| Sesbania sesban (sesban) | Intercropping |
Yes
|
Yes
| Gutteridge and Shelton,
1995 |
| Setaria verticillata (bristly foxtail) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sida acuta (sida) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Smith,
2002 |
| Silene gallica (common catchfly) | Agricultural machinery | |
Yes
| |
| Silene latifolia subsp. alba (white campion) | Seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Alberta Weed Monitoring Network,
2014 |
| Silybum marianum (variegated thistle) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Solanum capsicoides (cockroach berry) | Prevalent in cow pastures in Florida |
Yes
|
Yes
| Markle et al.,
2014 |
| Solanum elaeagnifolium (silverleaf nightshade) | Benefits from cultivating soil and spread by agricultural equipment |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Solanum quitoense (naranjilla) | Fruit crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2017 |
| Solanum rostratum (prickly nightshade) | Seed contaminant |
Yes
|
Yes
| Wiersema and León,
1999 |
| Solanum tuberosum (potato) | A staple crop in many countries |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Solanum viarum (tropical soda apple) | Movement of cattle, manure, hay within USA |
Yes
|
Yes
| Mullahey et al.,
2006 |
| Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) | Equipment or associated planting material-accidental |
Yes
| | ISSG,
2014 |
| Solenopsis richteri (black imported fire ant) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Taber,
2000 |
| Sonchus asper (spiny sow-thistle) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Vibrans,
2009 |
| Sonchus oleraceus (common sowthistle) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Holm et al.,
1977 |
| Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sphagneticola trilobata (wedelia) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Spodoptera litura (taro caterpillar) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sporisorium pulverulentum (Sporisorium smut of wild Saccharum) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sporobolus pyramidalis (giant rat’s tail grass) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Stenotaphrum secundatum (buffalo grass) | Agricultural machinery | |
Yes
| |
| Stictococcus vayssierei (cassava brown root scale) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Strawberry necrotic shock virus (Strawberry necrotic shock virus) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Striga asiatica (witch weed) | Risk of transfer with crop seeds and produce |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sugarcane grassy shoot phytoplasma (grassy shoot of sugarcane) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| sugarcane white leaf phytoplasma (white leaf of sugarcane) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Sus scrofa [ISC] (feral pig) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Hopf,
1979 |
| Syzygium malaccense (Malay apple) | Cultivated pantropically for its edible fruits |
Yes
|
Yes
| Little and Skolmen,
1989; Morton,
1987 |
| Tagetes erecta (Mexican marigold) | Cultivated for the pigment in its flowers |
Yes
|
Yes
| Heuzé et al.,
2017 |
| Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) | Most frequently observed entering New Zealand on fresh produce, such as coconuts |
Yes
|
Yes
| Harris et al.,
2005 |
| Tephrosia candida (white tephrosia) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Thecaphora frezii (peanut smut) | Seed trade, agricultural machinery and harvesting activities can disperse the pathogen between fields | |
Yes
| Cazón,
2015; Rago et al.,
2016 |
| Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican sunflower) | Weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Tithonia rotundifolia (red sunflower) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Vibrans,
2009 |
| Tomato apical stunt viroid | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus (Tomato New Delhi virus) | Seasonal crop rotation |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (leaf curl) | Switch of hosts during and after harvest. |
Yes
|
Yes
| Cohen et al.,
1988 |
| Trifolium angustifolium (narrow-leaf clover) | Used as a green manure | |
Yes
| Driouech et al.,
2008 |
| Trifolium hybridum (alsike clover) | Used for hay, fodder and green manure | |
Yes
| |
| Typha domingensis (southern cattail) | Seeds attach to mud on agricultural implements. | |
Yes
| Parsons and Cuthbertson,
1992 |
| Urena lobata (caesar weed) | Intentionally introduced in many countries as a fibre crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Langeland et al.,
2008 |
| Urena sinuata (bur mallow) | Used as a fibre crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| Maiti,
1979 |
| Urochloa platyphylla (broadleaf signalgrass) | Introduced as a contaminant in grass and crop-seeds |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2014 |
| Urochloa reptans (sprawling signalgrass) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| USDA-ARS,
2018 |
| Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) | grown as a fibre crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Ventenata dubia (North Africa grass) | Accidental, seeds in crop seed or hay |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Verbena rigida (stiff verbena) | Weed in cotton crop fields | |
Yes
| Johnson and Hazlewood,
2002 |
| Vicia villosa (hairy vetch) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| Heuze et al.,
2014 |
| Vulpia bromoides (squirreltail fescue) | Possibly spread in impure pasture grass seed |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant) | Equipment or associated planting material - accidental |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016 |
| Wheat streak mosaic virus (wheat streak) | Volunteer wheat plays a large part in distribution and epidemiology as a reservoir host for WSMV. |
Yes
| | Thomas and Hein,
2003 |
| Xanthomonas citri (citrus canker) | |
Yes
| | |
| Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum (bacterial leaf streak of corn) | Mechanisms of introduction and spread still unknown | |
Yes
| |
| Xanthosoma sagittifolium (elephant ear) | Tubers are consumed by humans |
Yes
|
Yes
| Manner,
2011 |
| Xylophilus ampelinus (canker of grapevine) | |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Youngia japonica (oriental false hawksbeard) | Agricultural weed |
Yes
|
Yes
| Vibrans,
2018 |
| Zeuxine strateumatica (soldier’s orchid) | In agricultural land and rice fields |
Yes
|
Yes
| Encyclopedia of Life,
2018 |
| Zingiber montanum (cassumunar ginger) | Widely cultivated for various medicinal purposes and as flavouring agent in food preprations |
Yes
|
Yes
| PROSEA,
2016; Ravindran and Babu,
2005; Wolff et al.,
1999 |
| Zingiber officinale (ginger) | Major export crop |
Yes
|
Yes
| |
| Ziziphus spina-christi (Christ's thorn jujube) | Often cultivated for its fruits |
Yes
|
Yes
| Orwa et al.,
2009 |
| Zoysia matrella (Manila grass) | Turfgrass production in tropical and subtropical regions |
Yes
| | FAO,
2015 |
