Triphasia trifolia (limeberry)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Triphasia trifolia (Burm. f.) P. Wilson
Preferred Common Name
- limeberry
Other Scientific Names
- Limonia trifolia Burm. f.
- Limonia trifoliata L. (nom. illeg.)
- Triphasia trifoliata DC. (nom. illeg.)
International Common Names
- English: orange berry; trifoliate limeberry; triphasia
- Spanish: limón de Jerusalén; limoncito; mirto
- French: orangine; petite citronelle
Local Common Names
- Bahamas: chinese lemon; lime berry
- Dominican Republic: naranjita de pegar
- Guam: lemonchina; lemondichina
- Lesser Antilles: chinese lemon; citronella; mutton lemon; myrtle lemon; myrtle lime; sweet lemon; sweet lime
- Puerto Rico: china debakon; chinita
- Saint Lucia: sitonnèl; sweet lime
- Samoa: moli vai atigi lima; vali atigi lima
- United States Virgin Islands: lime-berry
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageT. trifolia is an aggressive invasive plant with the capacity to grow in sunny open areas as well as in shaded areas beneath the canopy forest (Daley et al., 2012). It is a woody shrub classified as a “weed” and included in the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). T. trifolia spreads by seeds that can be easily dispersed by animals, mainly by birds, facilitating the invasion of this species into native forests. Seeds have high germination rates under natural conditions and grow forming dense-spiny thickets in the understory of the forest (Clark, 2003; Daley et al., 2012). For example, vegetation surveys performed in the understory of secondary forests on the islands of St. Croix (US Virgin Islands) have showed stem counts for this species exceeding 38,000 stems per hectare (Clark, 2003).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Rutales
- Family: Rutaceae
- Genus: Triphasia
- Species: Triphasia trifolia
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageRutaceae is a large plant family including about 154 genera and 2100 species distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical regions (Kubitzki et al., 2011). The genus Triphasia is located within the subfamily Aurantioideae along with nineteen genera including the genus Citrus. Triphasia includes three species native to South-East Asia (Indo-Malaysia), the Philippines and New Guinea (Kubitzki et al., 2011).
Description
Top of pageA glabrous shrub or small tree with paired spines in the axils of the leaves; leaves trifoliate; the terminal leaflet largest (2-4 cm long); lateral leaflets much smaller than the terminal one (1-2-2 x 0.8-1.2 cm), broadly rounded at the tip, cuneate at the base; petiolules very short (1.5-2 cm); petioles short (3-5 mm) and wingless. Flowers fragrant, calyx 1.5-2 mm long, 3-lobed, green, persistent; petals 3, white 8-9 mm long; stamens 6, filaments slender, glabrous, 5-7 mm long, anthers oblong, 2 x 1 mm; nectary disk annular or short-cylindric; ovary 3-locular. Fruits ellipsoid to globose, 1-1.5 cm long, dull reddish-orange or crimson when fleshy ripe; peel lemon-scented with many small oil glands; 1-3 seeds per fruit, immersed in mucilaginous pulpy flesh (Stone, 1970; Liogier, 1988; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 1996).
Distribution
Top of pageT. trifolia is native to South-East Asia, Malaysia, and Christmas Islands. It was introduced as an ornamental and as a “hedge or boundary plant” in many tropical and subtropical countries and currently it can be found in Africa, the USA (Florida, Hawaii, and Texas), Mexico, Central America, the West Indies and the Pacific islands (PIER, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2012).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | |||||
-Java | Present | Native | |||||
Laos | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Tortola | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Potentially invasive | ||||
Dominica | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Grenada | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Honduras | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | |||||
Montserrat | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | Saba, St. Martin, St. Eustatius | ||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weed. Also on Mona Island | |||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Nevis | ||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present, Widespread | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John | |||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Christmas Island | Present | Native | |||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Native | |||||
South America |
|||||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | Escaped from cultivation | ||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Escaped from cultivation |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageT. trifolia was probably introduced into the West Indies as an ornamental plant during the nineteenth century. It appears in an 1882 collection made on the islands of St. Thomas by H.F.A. Eggers (Smithsonian Herbarium Collections). Later, in 1886 it was collected in Quebradillas, Puerto Rico by P.E.E. Sintenis (Smithsonian Herbarium Collections). By 1905, Ignaz Urban (Symbolae Antillanae, IV: p. 320, 1905) reported this species as a “culta et quasi spontanea” for Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica, Cayman Islands, Hispaniola, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Vincent (Urban, 1905). In 1918, N.L. Britton in his book “Flora of Bermuda” reported this species as “frequent in gardens” for the island (Britton, 1918).
In Florida, T. trifolia was also introduced as an ornamental and by 1913 it was reported as an introduced species occurring on hammocks, coastal plain, fields and cultivated grounds (Small, 1913). By 1933 this species is also reported in Texas (Small, 1933). In 1999, it was included in the Florida List of Invasive Species as an invasive Category II, which are invasive plants that have increased in abundance or frequency but have not yet altered natural plant communities (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011). As an action plan to control T. trifolia, the Florida Exotic Pest Council requested that nursery growers, landscape professionals and garden centre retailers voluntarily stop using the plant (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011).
T. trifolia has also been introduced on islands in the Pacific, including Hawaii, Guam, Fiji, Mariana Islands, and Micronesia, but the year of introduction on those islands is not clear, and on some islands, for example Guam and Fiji, it is considered a “common naturalized shrub” (Stone, 1970; Smith, 1985). Currently, T. trifolia is considered an invasive species that threatens ecosystems of the Pacific islands (PIER, 2012).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of T. trifolia is high. It is widely commercialized as ornamental, windbreak plant, and hedge plant and it is still sold in the nursery and landscape trade around the world. T. trifolia is easily dispersed by seeds and it has the capacity to develop perfectly in open areas as well as in shaded areas (Daley et al., 2012). Consequently, the probability of this species invading and colonizing new habitats remains high.
Habitat
Top of pageT. trifolia can be found growing in sunny-open areas as well as in shaded areas beneath the understory of secondary forests, hammocks, scrublands, coastal forests, mesic forests, ruderal communities, riparian areas, and disturbed areas from sea level to low elevations (Small, 1933; Stone, 1970; Smith, 1985). Because this species grows forming dense-spiny tickets and adapts well to pruning, it is commonly used to create natural hedges in urban areas (Daley et al., 2012).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number in T. trifolia is 2n = 18 (Guerra et al., 2000).
Reproductive Biology
There are no studies available on the reproductive biology of T. trifolia. However, floral traits such as white and fragrant flowers, the production of nectar, and diurnal anthesis, suggest that this is an entomophilous species (Willmer, 2011).
Physiology and Phenology
Flowering and fruiting occurs throughout the year, with concentrations during summer months (Daley et al., 2012; PIER, 2012).
Environmental Requirements
T. trifolia prefers to grow in humid tropical areas on moderately loam sandy soils with pH between 5 and 6 (Verheij and Coronel, 1991). However, this species can also grow on limestone substrate (Daley et al., 2012). T. trifolia is a shade-tolerant species but it is also adapted to growth on open areas with full sunlight. It does not tolerate water-logging or frost (Daley et al., 2012; ISSG, 2012; PIER, 2012).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 500 | 2000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageT. trifolia spreads by seeds. Plants produce fruits throughout the year, and seeds can be dispersed by birds and bats (Wiles, 1987; PIER, 2012). This species is commonly planted in gardens and used as a hedge plant. Thus, seeds can be dispersed from gardens into natural forests (ISSG, 2012; PIER, 2012). As a shade-tolerant species, T. trifolia can germinate and establish in the understory of the forest (Daley et al., 2012).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Used as ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2012) |
Food | Fruits are edible | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2012) |
Hedges and windbreaks | Used as hedge plant | Yes | USDA-ARS (2012) | |
Internet sales | Seeds and plants sold online | Yes | Yes | |
Landscape improvement | Ornamental use | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2012) |
Medicinal use | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2012) | |
Nursery trade | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS (2012) | |
Seed trade | Seeds sold online | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Host and vector organisms | Seeds dispersed by birds | Yes | PIER (2012) | |
Seeds sold online | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageT. trifolia is one of the hosts used by the Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri. This psyllid can be one of the most serious pests of citrus if the pathogens that cause citrus greening disease are present. Citrus greening, also called Huanglongbing or yellow dragon disease, is one of the more serious diseases of citrus. Transmission of citrus greening occurs primarily via infective citrus psyllids and grafting (Halbert and Manjunath, 2004).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
T. trifolia is commonly used as an ornamental in gardens because it attracts birds, and as a “hedge plant”. Unfortunately, birds and other animals (i.e., bats) can disperse seeds into adjacent disturbed forests as well as into native forests (Wiles, 1987; PIER, 2012). This species is shade-tolerant and thus it can establish in the understory of forests. Once established, it grows forming dense-spiny thickets altering native plant communities. In the understory of native forests, T. trifolia grows taller than native plants and consequently smothers these plants, out-competing them for light and water (Clark, 2003; Daley et al., 2012).
Impact on Biodiversity
On Mona Island (Puerto Rico), the endemic and endangered iguana Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri has been impacted by the presence of T. trifolia. On this island, sites in the sandy coastal forests which provide areas with suitable environmental conditions for nesting iguanas were colonized by T. trifolia, limiting nesting sites for the iguana (Pérez-Buitrago et al., 2010; Rojas-Sandoval, personal observation).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cyclura stejnegeri (Mona Island iguana) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as threatened species | Puerto Rico | Pérez-Buitrago et al. (2010) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Tolerant of shade
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Conflict
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Loss of medicinal resources
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition - strangling
- Pest and disease transmission
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageT. trifolia is commonly used an ornamental in tropical and subtropical regions. It is popular among landscapers as a consequence of its fragrant flowers and bright-red fruits that attract birds to gardens. This species is also commercialized as a boundary or hedge plant, mainly because it adapts well to the frequent and severe pruning required to create a natural hedge. Plants of T. trifolia are also grown for their fruits. Fruits are acid but edible and they can be consumed in preserved, jams, and beverages (Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Burkill, 1994).
T. trifolia is also used in traditional medicine in South East Asia. Leaves exude a resinous scent when bruised, and the plant is considered antifungal and antibacterial and used to treat colic, diarrhea, and skin afflictions. Fruits are used for coughs and sore throats (Burkill, 1994).
Chemical compounds extracted from leaves and stems of T. trifolia have been evaluated for their inhibitory effects against herpes simplex virus (HSV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Likhitwitayawuid et al., 2005; Dondon et al., 2006). A recent study evaluating the inhibitory potential of 13 coumarins from T. trifolia demonstrated that it can be targeted as a prospective species for anti-HSV and HIV drug development (Likhitwitayawuid et al., 2005).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Windbreak
Human food and beverage
- Beverage base
- Fruits
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Seed trade
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
T. trifolia is a difficult species to control. It has flexible stems that are very difficult to cut with a machete or remove by hand. Seedlings and young plants should be pulled up and removed from treated areas. Fruits and fruiting branches should be also removed from treated areas. Larger trees should be cut with special machinery, and follow-up treatments are required to control sprouts (Daley et al., 2012).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of page- Studies on the history of introduction of this species are highly recommended.
- Studies on reproductive biology and breeding systems.
- Studies evaluating the impact of this exotic species on native plants and natural communities are needed in order to develop appropriate management and control strategies.
- Recommendations for management and control in natural areas invaded by this species are also needed.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 78:1-581.
Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Balick MJ; Nee M; Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85:1-246.
Breedlove DE, 1986. Flora de Chiapas. Listados Florísticos de México, 4: 1-246.
Britton NL, 1918. Flora of Bermuda. New York, USA: Charles Scribner's Sons. 585 pp.
Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Burkill HM, 1994. Useful plants of the West Tropical Africa. Volumen 4, Families M-R. London, UK: Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, 981pp.
Chakroff M, 2010. Virgin Islands Forest Resources Assessment and Strategies. A comprehensive analysis of forest-related conditions, trends, threats and opportunities. Kingshill, Virgin Islands, USA: USDA Forest Service's International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Forestry Division, VI Department of Agriculture.
Clark D, 2003. Weeds are Still "Weeds" in Paradise. Wildland Weeds, Winter:16-17. http://www.se-eppc.org/wildlandweeds/pdf/Winter2003-Clark-pp16-17.pdf
Correll DS; Correll HB, 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago. Vaduz, Germany: J. Cramer, 1692 pp.
Daley B; Valiulis J; Slatton R, 2012. Exotic Invasives; US Virgin Islands; Species Effecting Forests. [Doc. # GS-VIDA-1201.]
D'Arcy WG, 1987. Flora of Panama: Checklist and Index. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden.
Dondon R; Bourgeois P; Fery-Forgues S, 2006. A new bicoumarin from the leaves and stems of Triphasia trifolia. Fitoterapia, 77:129-133.
Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council, 2011. Florida EPPC's 2011 Invasive Plant Species List. http://www.fleppc.org/list/11list.html
González-Torres LR; Rankin R; Palmarola A (eds), 2012. Invasive plants in Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba.) Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6:1-140.
Graveson R, 2012. Plants of Saint Lucia. http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Guerra M; Santos KGBdos; Silva AEB; Ehrendorfer F, 2000. Heterochromatin banding pattern in Rutaceae-Aurantioideae: A case of parallel chromosomal evolution. American Journal of Botany, 87:735 - 747.
ISSG, 2012. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. http://www.issg.org/database
Kubitzki K; Kallunki JA; Duretto M; Wilson PG, 2011. Rutaceae. In: The Families and Genera of Vacular Plants. Vol. 10 [ed. by Kubitzki, K.]. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 276-356.
Liogier AH, 1988. Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands: A Systematic Synopsis. Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico.
Mori SA; Buck WR; Gracie CA; Tulig M, 2007. Plants and Lichens of Saba. [Virtual Herbarium of The New York Botanical Garden.] http://sweetgum.nybg.org/saba/
Pérez-Buitrago N; Sabat AM; McMillan WO, 2010. Spatial ecology of the Endangered Mona Island iguana Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri: Does territorial behavior regulate density? Herpetological Monographs, 24:86-110.
PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Randall RP, 2012. A global compendium of weeds, 2. Western Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp.
Small JK, 1913. Handbook of the native and naturalized shrubs of Florida.
Small JK, 1933. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 473.
Smith AC, 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanic Gardens, 758 pp.
Standley PC; Steyermark JA, 1946. Rutaceae. Flora of Guatemala - Part V. Fieldiana, Botany, 24(5):398-425.
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Stone BC, 1970. The Flora of Guam. Micronesica, 6:1-659.
Urban I, 1905. Symbolae Antillanae. Volumen IV. Berlin, Germany: Fratres Borntraeger, 771 pp.
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Wiles GJ, 1987. The status of fruit bats on Guam. Pacific Science, 41:148-157.
Willmer P, 2011. Pollination and floral ecology. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press.
Wunderlin RP; Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Distribution References
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 78 1-581.
Anon, 2012. Invasive plants in Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba). In: Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6 [ed. by González-Torres LR, Rankin R, Palmarola A]. 1-140.
Balick MJ, Nee M, Atha DE, 2000. Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize. In: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 85 1-246.
Breedlove D E, 1986. Flora de Chiapas. Listados Florísticos de México, Vol. 4. 246 pp.
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean., Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Burkill HM, 1994. Useful plants of the West Tropical Africa. Volumen 4, Families M-R. London., 4 London, UK: Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens. 981 pp.
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Chakroff M, 2010. Virgin Islands Forest Resources Assessment and Strategies. A comprehensive analysis of forest-related conditions, trends, threats and opportunities., Kingshill, Virgin Islands, USA: USDA Forest Service's International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Forestry Division, VI Department of Agriculture.
Correll DS, Correll HB, 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago., Vaduz, Germany: J Cramer. 1692 pp.
D'Arcy W G, 1987. Flora of Panama. Checklist and Index. 328 pp.
Graveson R, 2012. Plants of Saint Lucia., http://www.saintlucianplants.com
Liogier AH, 1988. Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands: A Systematic Synopsis., Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico.
Mori SA, Buck WR, Gracie CA, Tulig M, 2007. Plants and Lichens of Saba. In: Virtual Herbarium of The New York Botanical Garden, http://sweetgum.nybg.org/saba/
PIER, 2012. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Standley PC, Steyermark JA, 1946. (Rutaceae. Flora of Guatemala - Part V). In: Fieldiana, Botany, 24 (5) 398-425.
USDA-ARS, 2012. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Wunderlin RP, Hansen BF, 2008. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants., Tampa, Florida, USA: University of South Florida. http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Citrus Variety Collection, Triphasia, University of California Riverside | http://www.citrusvariety.ucr.edu/citrus/triphasia.html | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) | http://www.hear.org/Pier/index.html |
Contributors
Top of page13/11/12 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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