Daphnia lumholtzi
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Water Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Organizations
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of page| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Habit | Daphnia lumholtzi (African spiny water-flea); habit. D. lumholtzi is a freshwater cladoceran. January 2010. | ©Department of Animal Ecology, Evolution & Biodiversity/Ruhr University, Germany - CC BY-NC 2.0 | |
| Habit | Daphnia lumholtzi; habit. A hitch hiker with stocked fish. (note scale) Lexington Reservoir, Santa Clara County, California, USA. September 2004. | Public Domain - Released by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Original photographer, James Kuwabara |
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageD. lumholtzi is native to Africa, Asia, and Australia (Havel et al., 1995). It was first reported in North America in 1990 (Sorenson and Sterner, 1992), and Brazil in 2000 (Zanata et al., 2003). The ability to thrive in riverine habitats (Soeken-Gittinger et al., in review) and produce large numbers of resting eggs (Acharya et al., 2006) may enhance the spread and invasiveness of this species. Spines afford D. lumholtzi some protection from predation (Swaffar and O’Brien, 1996), but many fish species actively feed on D. lumholtzi during the warm summer months when D. lumholtzi become abundant and native Daphnia are normally scarce. Thus, D. lumholtzi may provide a supplemental food resource for zooplanktivorous fish (Lemke et al., 2003; Linesch and Gophen, 2005; Havel and Graham, 2006) rather than reducing the food base via competitive exclusion of native Daphnia. D. lumholtzi is listed in the ISSG Global Invasive Species Database, but not included in the ISSG “Worst 100” list.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Arthropoda
- Subphylum: Crustacea
- Class: Branchiopoda
- Order: Cladocera
- Family: Daphniidae
- Genus: Daphnia
- Species: Daphnia lumholtzi
Description
Top of pageDaphnia has a kidney-shaped almost transparent body covered with a carapace. The body is not distinctly segmented (Miller, 2000). The head of the organism contains both a darkly coloured compound eye and numerous antennae used for feeling and swimming. Many Daphnia, including D. pulex and D. magna, have a specialized light-sensing organ similiar to a tiny eye called an ocellus (Miller, 2000). The central portion of the body is the thorax which has four to six pairs of thoracic legs covered with setae, two branched antennae and leaf-like limbs inside the carapace that produce a current of water which carries food and oxygen to the mouth and gills (Clare, 2002). The post-abdomen is the most posterior part of the body and terminates itself in two hook-like cuticular claws used by the organism to clear debris out of the carapace. The fine teeth located on these claws are often used for species identification (Miller, 2000), and contains four to six pairs of flattened legs covered in setae. In a live specimen, food particles can be seen passing through the intestine which terminates at the anus located on the post-abdomen. The abdomen and post-abdomen are generally bent forward under the thorax. Heart function can be seen through the transparent body.
Males are distinguished from females by their smaller size, larger antennules, modified post-abdomen, and first legs, which are armed with a hook used in clasping (Clare, 2002).
Distribution
Top of pageBecause of the clonal structure of many Daphnia populations, and the fact that some clonal lines are obligate parthenogens (asexual only), invasions can occur at both the species and clonal level. The invasion of North America by D. lumholtzi is an example of invasion at the species level whereas the invasion of Africa by a single genotype of D. pulex is an invasion at the clonal level. D. lumholtzi is native to three continents: Africa, Asia, and Australia (Havel et al., 1995) and tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions. It was first reported from North America in 1990 and spread rapidly throughout the continent during the next ten years (Havel and Shurin, 2004). Compared to native North American Daphnia species, D.lumholtzi is more tolerant of riverine conditions (Stoeckel et al., 1996, Soeken-Gittinger et al., in review), warm temperatures (Yurista, 2004), and tends to invest heavily in resting eggs (Acharya et al., 2006).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
| Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia | ||||||||
| India | Present | Native | Not invasive | Kanaujia, 1979 | Collected from a fishpond in Cuttack, India | |||
| Iraq | Present | Native | Not invasive | Mangalo and Akbar, 1988 | Diyala River | |||
| Israel | Absent, formerly present | Native | Not invasive | Gophen, 1979 | Extirpated from Lake Kinneret in late 1950s-early 1960s | |||
| Nepal | Present | Native | Not invasive | Swar and Fernando, 1979 | Collected from Lake Phewa, Nepal | |||
Africa | ||||||||
| Congo Democratic Republic | Present | Native | Not invasive | Green, 1967 | Two forms of D. lumholtzi found in Lake Albert | |||
| Kenya | Localised | Native | Not invasive | Mergeay et al., 2005 | Distribution of Daphnia in tropical Africa is poorly known. In this study, D. lumholtzi was only found in one (Lake Naivasha) of 41 standing water bodies sampled in Kenya | |||
| Sudan | Present | Native | Not invasive | Hanna and Schiemer, 1993; Elhigzi et al., 1995 | ||||
| Uganda | Present | Native | Not invasive | Green, 1967 | Two forms of D. lumholtzi found in Lake Albert | |||
| Zimbabwe | Present | Native | Not invasive | Magadza, 1994 | Lake Chivero was only lake surveyed in this study | |||
North America | ||||||||
| USA | Widespread | Introduced | 1990 | Invasive | Havel and Shurin, 2004 | Spread rapidly through Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Tenessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, Arizona, California from 1991-2002 | ||
| -Alabama | Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | DeVries et al., 2006 | Found in Lower Mobile-Tensaw River Delta at sites with salinity up to 1.5 g/L | |||
| -Ohio | Localised | Introduced | 1999 | Invasive | Muzinic, 2000 | Lake Erie (East Harbor State Park, Lakeside, Ohio). It may also be in Canadian portion of Lake Erie | ||
| -Texas | Widespread | Introduced | 1991 | Invasive | Sorensen and Sterner, 1992 | Earliest published collection of the species in N. America (Fairfield Reservoir, East Texas) | ||
South America | ||||||||
| Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
| -Sao Paulo | Localised | Introduced | 2000 | Zanata et al., 2003 | Found in Tres Irmaos Reservoir | |||
Europe | ||||||||
| UK | Absent, invalid record | ISSG, 2008 | Mistakenly cited (J Havel, Missouri State Uni., pers comm, 2008) | |||||
Oceania | ||||||||
| Australia | Present | Hebert, 1977; Benzie, 1988 | ||||||
| -Queensland | Present | Native | Not invasive | Timms and Midgely, 1969; King and Greenwood, 1992 | ||||
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageIn stark contrast to the relatively benign (thus far) invasion of North America by D. lumholtzi, an invasion of Africa by a North American clone of D. pulex has resulted in the complete displacement of all native D. pulex clones. The invading clone is hypothesized to have been accidentally introduced with a largemouth bass stocking program in the late 1920s and now appears to be the only D. pulex genotype occurring in Africa (Mergeay et al., 2006). This is an alarming example of a cryptic invasion that was only detectable using modern genetic techniques, but has had a devastating impact on the native genetic diversity of the native population.
Habitat
Top of pageDaphnia spp. can be found in almost any permanent body of water. They are mainly freshwater and densely populate most lakes and ponds. They live as plankton in the open water of lakes, or live either attached to vegetation or near the bottom of the body of water (Miller, 2000).
Habitat List
Top of page| Category | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Freshwater | ||||
| Lakes | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
| Reservoirs | Principal habitat | Natural | ||
| Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
D. lumholtzi has been DNA sequenced, please see Elias-Gutierrez et al. (2008).
Environmental Requirements
There is a lack of papers providing complete environmental tolerance ranges of D. lumholtzi. Most published studies on this subject tend to state that D. lumholtzi is associated with “high” or “low” values of a given parameter, depending on the range of values encountered in the study. I have therefore provided ranges of water quality parameters for lakes/reservoirs where D. lumholtzi were present. The ranges given here for each parameter fall within the tolerated range, but do not represent the entire tolerated range.
Also see datasheet on Daphnia spp.
Climate
Top of page| Climate | Status | Description | Remark |
|---|---|---|---|
| A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
| BS - Steppe climate | Preferred | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
| BW - Desert climate | Preferred | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
| C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
| D - Continental/Microthermal climate | Tolerated | Continental/Microthermal climate (Average temp. of coldest month < 0°C, mean warmest month > 10°C) |
Water Tolerances
Top of page| Parameter | Minimum Value | Maximum Value | Typical Value | Status | Life Stage | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Conductivity (µmhos/cm) | Optimum | 87.1-382.6 tolerated in 152 lakes and reservoirs in Missouri, USA: absence associated with higher values within and above this range (Havel et al., 2002) | ||||
| Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | Optimum | >2.0 tolerated in Lower Atchafalaya River Basin, USA (Davidson and Kelso, 1997) | ||||
| Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate) | Optimum | 19-62.6 mg/l Ca ions tolerated from 112 Missouri Reservoirs, USA (Havel et al., 1995) | ||||
| Salinity (part per thousand) | Optimum | <1.5 g/L preferred; 1.5 g/L tolerated in Mobile River Delta, USA (Devries et al., 2006) | ||||
| Turbidity (JTU turbidity) | Optimum | 1.4-27.4 NTU in 152 lakes and reservoirs in Missouri, USA (Havel et al., 2002) | ||||
| Velocity (cm/h) | Optimum | Lower Atchafalaya River Basin, USA: D. lumholtzi abundance negatively related to current velocity, no velocity range provided (Davidson and Kelso, 1997; Davidson et al., 1998) | ||||
| Water pH (pH) | Optimum | 8.057-8.693 tolerated in 34 reservoirs in Kansas, USA (Dzialowski et al., 2000) | ||||
| Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 20 | 30 | Optimum | 10-30 tolerated; resting eggs can tolerate subzero temperatures, juveniles and adults are tolerant of cool temperatures (Work and Gophen, 1999b; Muzinic, 2000; Lennon et al., 2001) |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageMany fish species actively feed on D. lumholtzi, and the invader does not appear to be replacing native daphnia species. Rather, D. lumholtzi becomes most abundant during periods of warm water temperatures when native Daphnia are normally rare. Thus, D. lumholtzi may be providing a supplementary food resource for zooplanktivorous fish during the warm summer months (Lemke et al., 2003; Linesch and Gophen, 2005; Havel and Graham, 2006).
Pathway Causes
Top of page| Cause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Digestion and excretion | Ephippial transport, possibly in digestive tract of Nile Perch hypothesized as mode of introduction | Yes | Havel and Hebert, 1993 | |
| Fisheries | Hypothesized to have travelled to North America via shipment(s) of Nile Perch from Lake Victoria | Yes | Havel and Hebert, 1993 | |
| Hitchhiker | Resting eggs enclosed in a protective ephippium which possess hooks that allow attachment | Yes | Yes | Benzie, 1988; Dzialowski et al., 2000; Fryer, 1996; Havel and Hebert, 1993; Havel and Shurin, 2004 |
| Hunting, angling, sport or racing | Resting eggs enclosed in a protective ephippium can survive in the live-wells of recreational boats | Yes | Yes | Havel and Shurin, 2004 |
| Pet trade | Hypothesized to have travelled to North America via shipment(s) of cichlids from Lake Victoria | Yes | Havel and Hebert, 1993 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of page| Vector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aquaculture stock | Eggs can survive passage through the digestive tract of fish | Yes | Yes | Havel and Shurin, 2004; Mellors, 1975; Sorensen and Sterner, 1992 |
| Bait | D. lumholtzi can survive in boat live wells during summer months | Yes | Yes | Havel and Stelzeinni-Schwent, 2000 |
| Bulk freight or cargo | Yes | Yes | ||
| Clothing, footwear and possessions | Ephippia have structures that act as hooks allowing for easy attachment to clothing and other items | Yes | Yes | Benzie, 1988; Dzialowski et al., 2000; Fryer, 1996; Havel and Hebert, 1993 |
| Machinery and equipment | Importation of industrial and earth-moving equipment has been implicated in overseas invasions | Yes | Duffy et al., 2000; Havel and Shurin, 2004 | |
| Pets and aquarium species | Introduction via the aquarium trade is one hypothesis regarding the invasion of North America | Yes | Havel and Hebert, 1993 | |
| Ship ballast water and sediment | D. lumholtzi adults and resting eggs could easily be transported in ship ballast water and sediments | Yes | Yes | Havel and Shurin, 2004 |
| Ship structures above the water line | Adult D. lumholtzi survived for up to 3 days in boat live-wells | Yes | Yes | Havel and Stelzeinni-Schwent, 2000 |
| Water | Daphnia can easily drft between lakes and reservoirs via connecting streams | Yes | Havel and Shurin, 2004; Shurin and Havel, 2003; Soeken-Gittinger et al., 2007; Stoeckel et al., 1996; Thorp et al., 1994 | |
| Wind | Wind and atmospheric transport is likely to be a frequent mode of local and long distance dispersal | Yes | Yes | Cáceres and Soluk, 2002; Cohen and Shurin, 2003; Havel and Shurin, 2004 |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
- Highly mobile locally
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Filtration
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageD. lumholtzi is easily distinguished from native North American species by the presence of large head and tail spines (Havel and Hebert, 1993). Initial fears that these spines would afford D. lumholtzi a competitive advantage over native species via protection from predation appear to be largely unfounded.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of page1. Lethal values for many water quality parameters such as DO, nitrate, ammonia, etc. are currently lacking.
2. Thorough surveys of distribution in native habitat are needed, particularly on the African continent.
3. Impacts on native communities (positive and negative) are still poorly understood.
References
Top of pageClare J, 2002. Daphnia: An aquarist’s guide. Caudata Online at www.caudata.org/daphnia/. Accessed 30 January 2005.
Miller C, 2000. Daphnia pulex. Animal Diversity Online. Online at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Daphnia_pulex.html . Accessed January 28 2005.
Links to Websites
Top of page| Website | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| Interactive distribution map for Daphnia lumholtzi in the United States | http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/speciesmap.asp | |
| The Zooplankton Project | http://www.cnas.missouristate.edu/zooplankton/ |
Organizations
Top of pageSwitzerland: IUCN (The World Conservation Union), Rue Mauverney 28, Gland 1196, Gland, Switzerland, http://www.iucn.org/
USA: United States Geological Survey: Nonindigenous Aquatic Species, Florida Integrated Science Center (FISC), Gainesville, FL 32653
Contributors
Top of page06/03/08 Original text by:
James Stoeckel, Auburn University, Dept. of Fisheries & Allied Aquacultures, 203 Swingle Hall, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USA
Distribution Maps
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