Limnoperna fortunei (golden mussel)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Introductions
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Water Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Limnoperna fortunei (Dunker, 1857)
Preferred Common Name
- golden mussel
Other Scientific Names
- Dreissena siamensis (Morelet, 1866)
- Limnoperna depressa (Brandt & Temcharoen, 1971)
- Limnoperna lacustris (von Martens, 1875)
- Limnoperna supoti Brandt, 1974
- Modiola fortunei (Reeve 1858)
- Modiola lacustris (von Martens, 1875)
- Volsella fortunei Dunker, 1857
International Common Names
- Spanish: mejillón dorado
- Portuguese: mexilhão-dourado
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageL. fortunei is an epifaunal mytilid, native to Chinese and south-eastern Asian rivers and creeks. It became established in Hong Kong in 1965 and in Japan and Taiwan in the 1990s. In 1991, it invaded America through the Plata basin (Río de la Plata, Argentina, South America). It spreads up stream in the main rivers of the Plata basin (240 km/year), using different vectors (e.g. commercial and tourist ships, fixed to nets, buoys). It has several invasive characteristics such as gregariousness, rapid growth, short life span; it has a planktonic larval stage, and great adaptive and reproductive capacity. It modifies the presence and abundance of native macro invertebrate fauna, fish diets, and their high filtration rates cause environmental impact, changing ecological conditions in the areas colonized. It causes great economic damage to water intakes and cooling systems.
L. fortunei is listed as an invasive species in ISSG and other databases.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Metazoa
- Phylum: Mollusca
- Class: Bivalvia
- Subclass: Pteriomorphia
- Order: Mytiloida
- Unknown: Mytiloidea
- Family: Mytilidae
- Genus: Limnoperna
- Species: Limnoperna fortunei
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe generic name Limnoperna Rochebrune 1888 was erected to distinguish this monotypic genus from the other mytilids. Limnoperna fortunei has been cited under a variety of names (Morton, 1973; Ricciardi, 1998). One species and its subspecies of the genus Limnoperna was recognized from Japan: Limnoperna fortunei fortunei (Dunker, 1857) and Limnoperna fortunei kikuchii Habe, 1981 (Habe, 1981). Kimura et al. (1999) confirmed that L. fortunei kikuchii isa synonym of Xenostrobus securis Lamarck, 1819.
Description
Top of pageL. fortunei is a bivalve mollusc that belongs to the Mytilidae. Adult L. fortunei are sessile and are generally found in clumps on hard substrates.
The shells of adult L. fortunei are equivalve and heteromyarian. It is dark-brown above the umbonal keel and paler yellow-brown below.This is caused by the nacre of the interior of the shell being purple above and white below the keel. The presence of a nacreous layer in L. fortunei removes this genus from all contact with Dreissenacea.
The outer periostracal layer of the shell is smooth and shiny, and thick where it curls inwards at the shell margin. The umbones are very nearly terminal and the dorsal ligamental margin is straight or, at most, only slightly curved. The ventral margin of the shell is the most variable feature and in different specimens varied between the two extremes of being either straight or distinctly arcuate. There are no hinge teeth or byssal notches.
The shells are yellow-brown. In clear water, for example in northern Argentina, they look golden; so it is called the ‘golden mussel’.
Its longevity is variable. In the natural environment of Bagliardi Beach, Argentina, longevity was recorded as 3.2 years (Maroñas et al., 2003). Boltovskoy and Cataldo (1999) estimated it as 3 years in Cuenca del Plata, Argentina. Iwasaki and Uryu (1998) suggested a longevity of 2 years in the Uji River, Japan, from 4 to 5 years in Korea and over 10 years in central China.
It is dioecious and reaches sexual maturity in the first year of its life span. Spawning occurs at temperatures of 16-28°C. After spawning and fertilization, the trocophore is the first planktonic stage. Several stages of free-swimming planktonic veliger (D-larvae about 7 days, between 80 and 146 mm; veliconcha between 90 and 237 mm and pediveliger or umbonate, more than 256 mm). Then the larvae settle as plantigrade mussels and attach to the substrate as juveniles. These larvae are free-swimming and planktonic and live in the water column. These stages of the mussel’s life cycle are the most vulnerable to environmental fluctuations.
The larvae settle to the bottom and securely attach to a hard substrate by byssal threads, which are secreted from a gland at the base of the mussel’s muscular foot.
L. fortunei are epifaunal, unlike most other South American native freshwater bivalves, and not overly selective, therefore they colonize almost any solid, submerged surface such as buoys, water intake pipes, rocks, rooted aquatic plants, boat hulls, and the shells of other molluscs. Its eurioic status allows a quick and effective distribution in water bodies. The juveniles differentiate into males and females; with lengths of 5 mm in the spring and 9 mm in the summer, and can reach sexual maturity after 6 mm total length (Darrigran et al., 2003).
Distribution
Top of pageL. fortunei is a freshwater mytilid of South East Asia; native to China, and also found in Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia and Thailand (Oliveira et al., 2006), typically found in freshwater systems; both rivers and lakes.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 10 Feb 2022Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia |
|||||||
Cambodia | Present | ||||||
China | Present | Introduced | 1986 | ||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Invasive | in supplied potable water | |||
Indonesia | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | First reported: 1990 - 1999 | ||||
Laos | Present | ||||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | fouling potable water supply systems | |||
Thailand | Present | ||||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Brazil | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present, Few occurrences | Introduced | 2004 | Invasive | Paranaiba, Porto Alencastro | ||
-Parana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Paraguay | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1997 | Invasive | Paraguay River, Asunción | ||
Uruguay | Present | Introduced | Invasive |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageMorton (1975) first recorded it in Hong Kong where it had been introduced from China via supplied potable water. The species has been recorded in Taiwan, fouling potable water supply systems (Tan et al.,1987). In Japan, L. fortunei was first recorded in the ancient Lake Biwa in 1991 (Kimura, 1994) and has subsequently invaded associated potable water treatment systems (Nakai, 1995). It was first recorded in South America in the 1990s (Pastorino et al., 1993).
Introductions
Top of pageIntroduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reason | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
Argentina | South East Asia | 1991 | Yes | No | Darrigran (2002); Darrigran and Damborenea (2005); Darrigran and Damborenea (2006) | Darrigran and Pastorino (1995) proposed the non-intentional introduction of L. fortunei into the Río de la Plata, through ballast water of ocean vessels | ||
Brazil | Argentina | 1999 | Yes | No | Darrigran and Mansur (2006); Mansur et al. (2004) | Mansur et al. (2004) proposed the non-intentional introduction of L. fortunei into the Guaíba basin through ballast water of Argentinean ocean vessels | ||
Japan | China | 1987 | Yes | No | Magara et al. (2001) | L. fortunei arrived in Japan possibly with the Asian clam imported as food from mainland China | ||
Paraguay | Argentina | 1997 | Yes | No | Darrigran (2002) | Commercial ships and sport boats vectors | ||
Uruguay | Argentina | 1994 | Yes | No | Scarabino and Verde (1995) | Commercial ships and sport boats vectors |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageAt present the pathways are under study. Up to now, the main identified pathway is the commercial trade in the big rivers of the Plata basin (Paraná and Paraguay rivers), and the tourist/sporting activities in the Uruguay River (Darrigran, 2002). There are no governmental controls of the pathways.
Habitat
Top of pageIn South America, L. fortunei first occupied environments with freshwater temperatures of 14-24ºC. At a later stage it invaded areas with shorter winters and temperatures of 15-33ºC. It can also inhabit brackish waters (salinity <3 ppt), and tolerates pH values of 6.2-7.4 and calcium ion concentrations of 3.96 mg/L (Darrigran, 2002). The species needs hard substrates to attach to with byssal threads.
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Freshwater | ||||
Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Freshwater | Lakes | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Lakes | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Reservoirs | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Brackish | Estuaries | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Brackish | Estuaries | Principal habitat | Natural | |
Brackish | Lagoons | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageReproductive Biology
Nutrition
Associations
Environmental Requirements
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
16 | 35 |
Water Tolerances
Top of pageParameter | Minimum Value | Maximum Value | Typical Value | Status | Life Stage | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Conductivity (µmhos/cm) | Optimum | Recorded from 456 to 47.16 µS/cm | ||||
Depth (m b.s.l.) | 0.5 | 10 | Optimum | Recorded from 0.5 to 40 | ||
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 6 | Optimum | Recorded from 5.1 to 24 | |||
Hardness (mg/l of Calcium Carbonate) | 3 | Optimum | Recorded from 2.1 to 4.6 | |||
Salinity (part per thousand) | 0 | Optimum | Up to 3 tolerated | |||
Turbidity (JTU turbidity) | Optimum | Recorded from 3.7 to 68.3 (NTU) | ||||
Water pH (pH) | 7 | Optimum | Recorded from 5.8 to 7.4 | |||
Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 18 | Optimum | 8-33 tolerated |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brochiloricaria chauliodon | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Callinectes sapidus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Cyprinus carpio | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Hypostomus laplatae | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Hypostomus uruguayensis | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Leporinus obtusidens | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Megalancistrus parananus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Micropogonias furnieri | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Oxydoras kneri | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Paraloricaria vetula | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Piaractus mesopotamicus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Pimelodus albicans | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Pimelodus argenteus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Pimelodus maculatus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Potamotrygon brachyura | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Pseudohemiodon laticeps | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Pterodoras granulosus | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Rhinodoras dorbignyi | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific | |||
Schizodon borellii | Predator | Aquatic|Adult | not specific |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThere are no records of natural enemies in its native area. In the introduced area, enemies include the following species of fishes: Leporinus obtusidens; Schizodon borellii; Piaractus mesopotámicus; Pterodoras granulosus; Rhinodoras dorbignyi; Oxydoras kneri; Pimelodus maculatus; Pimelodus albicans; Pimelodus argenteus; Brochiloricaria chauliodon; Hypostomus laplatae; Hypostomus uruguayensis; Paraloricaria vetula; Megalancystrus parananus; Pseudohemiodon laticeps; Cyprinus carpio; Potamotrygon brachyurus; Micropogonias furnieri (García and Montalto, 2006).
Cesar et al. (2003) described the predation of L. fortunei by the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus in Rio de la Plata Estuary.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
The natural dispersal of L. fortunei is passive, and occurs as veliger larvae that are passively transported from colonized areas through connected streams. The natural dispersal is downstream and dependent on water currents.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
There is little information about biotic vector transmission. The specimens could be eaten and carried in the gut of fishes (Belz, 2006) birds, etc.
Accidental Introduction
L. fortunei has been accidentally introduced in South America. Darrigran and Pastorino (1995) proposed the non-intentional introduction of L. fortunei into the Río de la Plata in 1991, through ballast water of ocean vessels. At that time an increase of trade between Argentina and two countries that L. fortunei inhabits occurred. In Guaíba Basin, it was also probably introduced via ballast water (Mansur et al., 1999) and in the Itaipu reservoir (Zanella and Marenda, 2002) probably via boats used for sport.
Magara et al. (2001) proposed that L. fortunei arrived in Japan before 1987 possibly with the Asian clam imported as food from mainland China.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aquaculture | L. fortunei arrived in Japan before 1987 possibly with the Asian clam imported as food from China | Yes | Magara et al. (2001) | |
Flooding and other natural disasters | Alluvial floodplain Paraná River, Argentina | Yes | Ezcurra et al. (2006) | |
Hunting, angling, sport or racing | Sport fish | Yes | Darrigran et al. (2004) | |
Interconnected waterways | From China to Hong Kong | Yes | Morton (1975) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bait | Larval stages in water | Yes | Belz (2006) | |
Floating vegetation and debris | Fixed juveniles and adults | Yes | Boltovskoy et al. (2006) | |
Ship ballast water and sediment | From Southeast Asia to South America. From Rio de la Plata, Argentina to Guaiba, Brazil | Yes | Darrigran Pastorino (1995); Mansur et al. (2004) | |
Ship hull fouling | Fixed juveniles and adults | Yes | Darrigran (2002) | |
Soil, sand and gravel | Sandy trucks that transport artificial beaches | Yes | Belz (2006) | |
Water | Larval stages in water; juveniles and adults | Yes | Darrigran (2002) |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageFreshwater macrofouling is a new economic/environmental problem for South America. Until the beginning of the 1990s, macrofouling in the neotropical region occurred only in marine and mixohaline waters. Since the introduction of L. fortunei, macrofouling also extended to freshwaters in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (Darrigran and Damborenea, 2005). This kind of problem (freshwater macrofouling) is caused by the appearance of larvae or juveniles of L. fortunei. It impacts the sources of water supply of many water-treatment plants, industrial refrigeration systems, and power stations. Among the usual problems involved, the following are the most significant: pipe obstruction; reduction in flow velocity in pipes due to friction loss (turbulent flows); accumulation of empty valves and pollution of water ways by massive mortality; filter occlusion; and increase in the corrosion of surfaces due to mussel infestation. This new economical and environmental problem for the neotropical regions produces unexpected expenses, for example, due to system shutdowns, the need for chemical or mechanical cleaning, and pipe and filter replacement.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
The large biomass associated with high densities of L. fortunei impacts on aquatic food chains. Several species of native fish consume L. fortunei (López Armengol and Casciotta, 1998; Montalto et al., 1999) and it has become the main food source for Leporinus obtusidens (Anostomidea) in the Río de la Plata (Penchaszadeh et al., 2000).
However, many other aspects of the biology of L. fortunei are poorly understood (Sylvester et al., 2005), including its filtering capacity. Because of its high density in the Plata basin, L. fortunei could increase water clarity in a manner similar to that caused by Dreissena polymorpha in North America (Darrigran and Damborenea, 2005).
Impact on Biodiversity
The impact caused by L. fortunei it is not restricted to the economic aspect. Darrigran et al. (1998) showed that since the introduction of L. fortunei at Bagliardi Beach, two gastropods commonly found have been displaced: one of them, Chilina fluminea, is no longer found; whereas the other, Gundlachia concentrica, is becoming rare. In contrast, several benthic species, uncommon or absent before the occurrence of L. fortunei in this microenvironment, are now present, including the Annelids: Oligochaeta (eight species), Aphanoneura (one species) and Hirudinea (eight species). In addition, several species of crustaceans and insects never cited at the invaded areas are now present (Darrigran et al., 1998).
The most direct and severe ecological impact has been the epizoic colonization of native naiads (Hyriidae and Mycetopodidae) by L. fortunei, similar to the impact of D. polymorpha on native bivalves in North America (Ricciardi et al., 1997).The displacement of the native naiads resulted from their inability to open and shut their valves because of the byssally-attached mussels on their shells. The quantitative impact of L. fortunei on native naiads in South America is unknown. L. fortunei alsosettles on other native fauna, such as Pomacea canaliculata (Gastropoda, Ampullariidae) and Aegla platensis (Anomura, Aeglidae), as well as on the introduced Corbicula fluminea (Bivalvia, Corbiculidae) (Darrigran et al., 2000; Darrigran, 2002).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anodontites | No Details | Competition; Competition - smothering; Filtration; Fouling | Darrigran (2002); Darrigran and Damborenea (2005) | ||
Castalia | No details | Competition; Competition - smothering; Filtration; Fouling | Darrigran (2002); Darrigran and Damborenea (2005) | ||
Mycetopoda | No details | Competition; Competition - smothering; Filtration; Fouling | Darrigran (2002); Darrigran and Damborenea (2005) | ||
Quadrula cylindrica strigillata (rough rabbitsfoot) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Tennessee | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2004) | |
Villosa perpurpurea (purple bean) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species | USA | Filtration | US Fish and Wildlife Service (2004) |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Infrastructure damage
- Modification of natural benthic communities
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - smothering
- Competition (unspecified)
- Filtration
- Fouling
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
- Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageNo productive benefit (economic, social or environmental) is known for L. fortunei invasion (Darrigran, 2002).
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageL. fortunei is similar to:
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention
The Secretaria de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Nación (Jefatura de Gabinete de Ministerios – http://www.ambiente.gov.ar) in Argentina, and the Ministerio de Medio Ambiente de Brasil (http://www.mma.gov.br/), are the government organizations that manage invasive species. Both ratified international events related to bio-invasions topics, such as:
- Convention of Naciones Unidas sobre el Derecho del Mar.
- Agreement about Biological Diversity (CDB).
Brazil and Argentina head the lists of South American countries that create the legislation about ballast water for invasive species control (e.g. Ordenanza 12-98, Prefectura Naval Argentina).
Public awareness
Through NGOs in Brazil and Argentina, and State Universities (e.g. Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo), educational programmes are carried out, both about bio-invasion in general and L. fortunei in particular.
Projects to increase information to the public in general are:
- Informative pamphlets on the economic-environmental problems resulting from the invasion of L. fortunei (freshwater macrofouling), and the production of documents and courses.
- A book about L. fortunei and its invasion in South America has recently been published (Darrigran and Damborenea, 2006).
Control
There is no single safety technique to control macrofouling due to L. fortunei in freshwater intake structures, screens, pumps, and fire protection systems of industries. There is a set of techniques suitable for each water system, in relation to the structure and the environmental features of the area. These techniques are a combination of physical/mechanical and chemical methods.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageIt would be of great value to generate knowledge about several topics, such as: predictive models for dispersion patterns; research about the more important vectors in each area; and research about control and preventive strategies with scarce environmental impact. This information is relevant because L. fortunei appears to be capable of colonizing waters from South America to the lower North American Great Lakes region (Ricciardi, 1998; Darrigran and Damborenea, 2005).
References
Top of pageDarrigran G, 1997. Invading Bivalves in the Plate Basin, Neotropical Region. Aliens,, 5::3-4
Darrigran G, 2000. Invasive Freshwater Bivalves of the Neotropical Region. Dreissena, 11((2)):7-13
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page01/04/08 Original text by:
G Darrigran, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, División Zoología de Invertebrados, Paseo del bosque, La Plata (1900), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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