Eucheuma spp.

Pictures

Picture	Title	Caption	Copyright
Title Monoline culture of Eucheuma sp. Caption Monoline culture of Eucheuma sp. off Sabah (Malaysia). Copyright Devakie M. Nair	Monoline culture of Eucheuma sp.	Monoline culture of Eucheuma sp. off Sabah (Malaysia).	Devakie M. Nair

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name

• Eucheuma spp.

Summary of Invasiveness

Wild and farmed crops of Eucheuma denticulatum, Kappaphycus alvarezii and Kappaphycus striatum are the main sources of the commercially important hydrocolloid carrageenan (Ask and Azanza, 2002; Aquaculture Compendium, 2006). Confusion in the taxonomy and systematics of the two distinct genera and several species assigned properly or mistakenly to either one or the other genus, has stemmed from the different names used in commerce and farming, and the lack of materials for proper identification. Negative impacts on the coral reef ecosystem of Kane’ohe Bay in Hawaii by the introduced Kappaphycus spp. have been recorded beginning 1970 (Rodger and Cox, 1999; Conklin and Smith, 2005). No other detailed documentation of the invasiveness of these species has been published.

The Global Invasive Species Database has listed the following as “exotic and invasive species”: 1) Kappaphycus alvarezii, 2) Kappaphycus cottonii, 3) Eucheuma denticulatum, 4) Eucheuma striatum (=Kappaphycus striatum) and 5) Kappaphycus spp.

Taxonomic Tree

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Rhodophyta
•             Class: Rhodophyceae
•                 Order: Gigartinales
•                     Family: Solieriaceae
•                         Genus: Eucheuma spp.

Description

The thallus of Eucheuma denticulatum ranges from 35 to 74 cm. Branches are brittle to cartilaginous in consistency, ranging from 7 to 9 cm in length, with whorled/spinous branchlets. The cell diameters are as follows: 2-5 µm outer cortex, 30-196 µm inner cortex and 20-45 µm medulla. Rhizoids of the medulla are present but thylles are absent. Tetrasporangia are zonate with tetraspores ranging from 13 to 36 µm in diameter. Spermatophyte conceptacles range over 350-650 x 300-420 µm with a spermatial diameter of 14-29 µm. Cystocarps and carpospores have not been observed in this species (after Azanza-Corrales, 1990).

Plant Type

Distribution

Eucheuma is also present in Madagascar (E Ask, Inst Fomento Pesquero, Div Fomento Acuicultura, Puerto Montt, Chile, personal communication, 2004) and Kenya (J Wakibia, personal communication, 2004).

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Introductions

Habitat List

Biology and Ecology

Reproductive Biology

The life cycle of Eucheuma spp. is triphasic and consists of the carposporophyte (2n) and gametophyte (n) phases. The vegetative and reproductive structures of tetrasporic and gametophytic populations and their occurrence in farming sites in the Philippines have been reported. Dawes (1979) found no differences in carrageenan yield between sexual stages of Eucheuma.

E. denticulatum produces zonate tetraspores. E. denticulatum from farms were found to have more tetrasporophytes than in the wild. Male gametophytes and structures are rare to unknown in this genus. In a study conducted by Azanza-Corrales et al. (1992), vegetative regeneration of plants will continue the same reproductive phases, thus, the ratio of reproductive phase (i.e. male, female and tetrasporic) may reflect that of the original plants introduced in the area. Sporogenesis and gametogenesis might occur without release or germination. Spores might be released but lack of suitable substrates at the site would lessen the possibility of spore settlement and germination.

Clone cultivation, however, is presently very useful for farming; further research, should therefore include the use of sporelings for culture as in other economically important seaweeds such as Porphyra and Laminaria. Sporeling cultivation could provide the possibility of other farming manipulations and increase genetic variation.

Field studies on these crops have shown the negative effects of exposure to excessive light. Light response curves have been plotted for the commercial eucheumatoids. The different colour types of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii have different photosynthetic responses. Ecotypic differentiation and variation in photosynthetic efficiency have been shown for E. denticulatum colour types red, brown and green, which were not shown by K. alvarezii when nitrogen was limiting (Ask and Azanza, 2001).

Temperature responses of this crop have been well studied in the field and laboratory. E. denticulatum and K. striatum (var. tambalang and elkhorn) have maximum photosynthetic rates at 30ºC with inhibition at 35-40ºC. An optimum photosynthetic rate was obtained between 30 and 35ºC for E. denticulatum. In tropical areas, Trono and Ohno (1989) reported that rapid growth and high biomass production by Kappaphycus and Eucheuma occur during months characterized by warmer temperature, i.e. 25-30ºC.

The growth or photosynthetic response of commercial eucheumatoids in relation to salinity has not been reported. According to Mathieson and Dawes (1974) in E. isiforme a photosynthetic maxima is achieved at 30-40 practical salinity untis (PSU) depending on temperature. Mairh et al. (1986) also reported that in laboratory grown E. striatum, thalli did not survive beyond 7-14 days in less than 24 psu or above 45 psu. Ask and Azanza (2001) suggested that single and interactive effects of salinity with other factors on the commercial cultivation of Eucheuma should be studied because in shallow floating forms or off bottom farms exposed at low tide the crops can be exposed to rapid decreases in salinity during tropical downpours. Noticeable drops in temperature and light levels also occur and plants located in the inter-tidal zone can experience rapid changes in salinity from freshwater runoff.

Climate

Air Temperature

Water Tolerances

Natural enemies

Pathway Causes

Pathway Vectors

Impact Summary

Risk and Impact Factors

• Has a broad native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Pioneering in disturbed areas
• Fast growing
• Reproduces asexually

• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Modification of natural benthic communities
• Reduced native biodiversity
• Threat to/ loss of endangered species
• Threat to/ loss of native species

• Competition - shading
• Competition - smothering
• Fouling
• Rapid growth
• Rooting
• Trampling

Uses List

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fishmeal
• Fodder/animal feed
• Invertebrate food

Environmental

• Revegetation
• Wildlife habitat

Fuels

• Biofuels

General

• Laboratory use
• Research model

Human food and beverage

• Emergency (famine) food
• Flour/starch
• Food additive
• Gum/mucilage
• Vegetable

Materials

• Cosmetics
• Fertilizer
• Fibre
• Gum/resin

References

Ask E, 1999. Cottonii and Spinosum Cultivation Handbook. FMC Food Ingredients Division, Philadelphia, 52 pp.

Ask E; Azanza R; Simbik M; Recarte C; Lagahid J, 2003. Technological Improvements in Commercial Eucheuma Cultivation (A Short Communication). Science Diliman, 15(2):47-51.

Ask EI, 2003. Creating a sustainable commercial Eucheuma cultivation industry: the importance and necessity of the human factor. Proceedings of the 17th International Seaweed Symposium, Cape Town, South Africa, 28 January-2 February 2001, 13-18.

Ask EI; Azanza RV, 2002. Advances in cultivation technology of commercial eucheumatoid species: a review with suggestions for future research. Aquaculture, 206(3/4):257-277.

Azanza RV; Aliaza T, 1999. In vitro carpospore release and germination in Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty from Tawi-Tawi, Philippines. Bot. Mar., 42:281-284.

Azanza-Corrales R, 1990. The farmed Eucheuma Species in Danajon Reef, Philippines: vegetative and reproductive structures. J. Appl. Phycol., 2:57-62.

Azanza-Corrales R; Dawes CJ, 1989. Wound healing in cultured Eucheuma alvarezii var. tambalang Doty. Bot. Mar., 32:229-234.

Azanza-Corrales RV; Mamauag SS; Alfiler E; Orolfo MJ, 1992. Reproduction in Eucheuma denticulatum (Burman) Collins and Harvey and Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty farmed in Danajon Reef, Philippines. Aquaculture, 103:29-34.

Braud JP; Perez R; Lacherade G, 1974. Etude des possibilités d’adaptation de l’algue rouge Eucheuma spinosum aux cotês des Afars et des Issas. Sci. Peche, Bull. Inst. Peches Marit., 238:1-16, Juillet-Août.

Burges Watson D, 2004. Carrageenan - Food Reference Website. Online at www.foodreference.com/html/fcarrageenan.html. Accessed 17 August 2004.

Cheney DP; Metz B; Levine I; Rudolph B, 1998. Genetic manipulation and strain improvement of seaweeds for aquaculture. Book of abstracts, Aquaculture ‘98 Las Vegas, Nevada, 105 pp.

Conklin EJ; Smith JE, 2005. Abundance and spread of the invasive red algae, Kappaphycus spp., in Kane'ohe Bay, Hawai'i and an experimental assessment of management options. Biological Invasions, 7(6):1029-1039. http://www.springerlink.com/content/l172120160062066/fulltext.pdf

Dang DH; Nang NQ; Hien HM, 2007. Genetic variation of Kappaphycus alvaerizii (Doty) grown on different coasts of central and southern Vietnam. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007.

Dawes CJ, 1979. Physiological and biochemical comparisons of species of Eucheuma yielding iota carrageenan from Florida and the Gulf of California with E. denticulatum from the Pacific (Rhodophyta). In: Jenson A, Stein J, eds. Proceedings of the 9th International Seaweed Symposium, Science Press, Princeton, 199-208.

Dawes CJ, 1989. Temperature acclimation of cultured Eucheuma isiforme from Florida and E. alvarezii from the Philippines. J. Appl. Phycol., 1:59-69.

Dawes CJ; Koch EW, 1991. Branch, micropropagule and tissue culture of the red algae Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii farmed in the Philippines. Journal of Applied Phycology, 3(3):247-257.

Dawes CJ; Trono GC; Lluisma AO, 1993. Clonal Propagation of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii for Philippines seaweed farms. Hydrobiologia, 260-261, 379-383.

de Paula EJ; Pereira RTL; Ohno M, 1999. Strain selection in Kappaphycus alvarezii var. alvarezii (Doty) Doty ex P. Silva (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae) using tetraspores progeny. J. Appl. Phycol., 11(1):111-121.

de Paula EJ; Pereira RTL; Ostini S, 1998. Introducão de especies exoticas de Eucheuma and Kappaphycus (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) para fins de maricultura no litoral Brasileiro: abordagem teorica e experimental. In: de Paula E J, Cordeiro-Marino M, Pupo Santos D, Fujii M, Plastino EM, Yokoya N, eds. IV Congreso Latino Americano de Ficologia, II Reuniao Ibero-Americana de Ficologia e VII Reuniao Brasileira de Ficologia, São Paulo, Brazil, 340 – 357.

de Reviers B, 1989. Realisation d’ Une Ferme de Culture Industrielle de Eucheuma aux Maldives. Oceanis, 15(5):749-752.

Doty MS, 1978. Status of marine agronomy with special reference to the tropics. In: Jensen A, Stein JR, eds. Proceedings of the 9th International Seaweed Symposium. Science Press, Princeton, 34-58.

Doty MS, 1980. Outplanting Eucheuma species and Gracilaria species in the Tropics. In: Abbott IA, Foster MS, Eklund LF, eds. Proceedings of the Symposium sponsored by Pacifica Area Sea Grant Advisory Program and the California Sea Grant College Program California Sea Grant, La Jolla, California: Pacific Seaweed Aquaculture, 19-22.

Doty MS, 1985. Eucheuma alvarezii sp. Nov. (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) from Malaysia. In: Abbott IA, Norris JN, eds. Taxonomy of Economic Seaweeds: With Reference to Some Pacific and Carribbean Species. California Sea Grant College Program. Rep. T-CSGCP-011, La Jolla, California, 37-45.

Doty MS, 1985. Eucheuma species (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta) that are major sources of carrageenan. In: Abbott IA, Norris JN, eds. Taxonomy of Economic Seaweeds: With Reference to Some Pacific and Carribbean Species. California Sea Grant College Program. Rep. T-CSGCP-011, La Jolla, California, 47-61.

Doty MS, 1995. Betaphycus philippinensis Gen. Et Sp. Nov. and Related Species (Solieriaceae, Gigartinales). In: Abbott IA, ed. Taxonomy of Economic Seaweeds With reference to some Pacific species Volume V. California Sea Grant College System, 237-245.

Doty MS; Alvarez VB, 1973. Seaweed farms: a new approach for US industry. Proceedings of the 9th Annual Conference Proceedings, University of Hawaii, Hawaii, 701-708.

Doty MS; Alvarez VB, 1975. Status, problems, advances and economics of Eucheuma farms. Mar. Technol. Soc. J., 9:30-35.

Glenn EP; Doty MS, 1992. Water motion affects the growth rates of Kappaphycus alvarezii and related red seaweeds. Aquaculture, 108:223-246.

Hayashi L; Oliveira EC; Bleicher-Lhonneur G; Boulenguer P; Pereira RTL; Seckendorff Rvon; Shimoda VT; Leflamand A; Vallée P; Critchley AT, 2007. Effects of selected cultivation conditions on the yield and properties of carrageenan of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta) in Brazil. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007.

Hayashi L; Yokoya NS; Kikuchi DM; Oliveira EC, 2007. Micro-propagation improved by colchicines and phytoregulators in Kappaphycus alvarezii "Edison de Paula" (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae), a strain selected from tetraspore progeny. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007.

Kapraun DF; Lopez-Bautista J, 1997. Karyology, Nuclear genome quantification and characterization of the carrageenophytes Eucheuma and Kappaphycus (Gigartinales). J. Appl. Phycol., 8:465-471.

Largo DB; Fukami F; Nishijima T, 1995. Occasional pathogenic bacteria promoting ice-ice disease in the carrageenan-producing red algae Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum (Soliariaceae, Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). J. Appl. Phycol., 7:545-554.

Lirasan T; Twide P, 1993. Farming Eucheuma in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Hydrobiologia, 260-261, 353-355.

Llana MEG, 1990. Status of production and utilization of seaweeds in the Philippines. In: FAO/NACA Report on the Regional Workshop on the Culture and Utilization of Seaweeds, (Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project RAS/90/002) 27-31. August 1990, Cebu City, Philippines. Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project/Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 124-149.

Mairh OP; Soe-Htun U; Ohno M, 1986. Culture of Eucheuma striatum (Rhodophyta, Soliariaceae) in subtropical waters of Shikoku, Japan. Bot. Mar., 29:185-191.

Mairh OP; Zodape ST; Tewari A; Rajyagaru MR, 1995. Culture of marine red algae Kappaphycus striatum (Schmitz) Doty on the Saurashtra region, West Coast of India, Indian J. Mar. Sci., 24:24-31.

Mathieson AC; Dawes CJ, 1974. Ecological studies of Floridian Eucheuma (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales): II. Photosynthesis and respiration. Bull. Mar. Sci., 34:274-285.

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Msuya FE; Kyewalyanga MS; Lhonneur GB; Laflamand A; Mazoyer J; Critchley AT, 2007. The effect of nutrients on the growth and carrageenan properties of Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum in Zanzibar, Tanzania. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007.

Muñoz J; Sahoo D, 2007. Impact of large scale Kappaphycus alvarezii cultivation in coastal waters of India. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007.

Namudu MT; Pickering TD, 2006. Rapid survey technique using socio-economic indicators to assess the suitability of Pacific Island rural communities for Kappaphycus seaweed farming development. Journal of Applied Phycology [Eighteenth International Seaweed Symposium, Bergen, Norway.], 18(3/5):241-249. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=100278

Nang HQ; Duc TM; Kha T, 2007. The growth of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty and Kappaphycus striatum (Schmitz) cultivated in the different temperature seasons. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007.

Ohno M; Huynh Quang Nang; Hirase S, 1996. Cultivation and carrageenan yield and quality of Kappaphycus alvarezii in the waters of Vietnam. Journal of Applied Phycology, 8(4/5):431-437; [6 pl., 1 map].

Ohno M; Nang HO; Dinh NH; Triet VD, 1995. On the growth of cultivated Kappaphycus alvarezii in Vietnam. Jpn. J. Phycol. (Sorui), 43:19-22.

Paula EJ; Pereira RTL, 2003. Factors affecting the growth rate of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty ex P. Silva (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae) in sub-tropical waters of Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Proceedings of the 17th International Seaweed Symposium, Cape Town, South Africa, 28 January-2 February 2001, 381-388.

Prakash J, 1990. Fiji. In: Adams T, Foscarini R, eds, Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Seaweed Culture and Marketing. South Pacific Aquaculture Development Project, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Suva, Fiji, 14-17 November, 1989, 1-9.

Rincones RE; Rubio JN, 1999. Introduction and commercial cultivation of the red alga Eucheuma in Venezuela for the production of phycocolloids. World Aquaculture Magazine, 30 (2):57-61.

Russell DJ, 1982. Introduction of Eucheuma to Fanning Atoll, Kiribati, for the purpose of Mariculture. Micronesia, 18(2):35-44.

Russell DJ, 1983. Ecology of the imported red seaweed Eucheuma striatum Schmitz on Coconut Island, Oahu, Hawaii. Pac. Sci, 37:87-108.

Russell DJ, 1983. Ecology of the imported red seaweed Eucheuma striatum Schmitz on Coconut Island, Oahu, Hawaii. Pac. Sci., 37: 87-108.

Serpa-Madrigal A; Areces AJ; Cano M; Bustamante G, 1997. Depredacion Sobre Las Carragenofitas Comerciales Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty and K. striatum (Schmitz) Doty (Rhodophyta:Gigartinales) Introducidas en Cuba. Rev. Invest. Mar., 18(1):65-69.

Soerjodinoto, 1969. Is the cultivation of seaweed (Eucheuma spinosum and Eucheuma edule) in Indonesia technically possible and economically justified? IPFC/C68?TECH 21 at 13th Session, October, 1968. Brisbane, Australia: IPFC, 4 pp.

Tanaka H, 1990. Foreword. In: Adams T, Foscarini R, eds. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Seaweed Culture and Marketing. South Pacific Aquaculture Development Project, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 14-17 November, 1989. Suva, Fiji, iii – iv.

Trono GC, 1993. Eucheuma and Kappaphycus: Taxonomy and cultivation. In: Ohno M, Critchley AT, eds. Seaweed Cultivation and Marine Ranching. Yokosuka, Japan: Kanagawa International Fisheries Training Centre, Japan International Cooperation Agency, 75-88.

Trono GC, 1997. Field Guide and Atlas of the Seaweed Resources of the Philippines. Makati City, Philippines: Bookmark, 291 pp.

Trono GC; Lluisma AO; Montaño MNE, 2000. Primer on Farming and Strain Selection of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma in the Philippines. Philippines: PCAMRD, 33 pp.

Trono GC; Ohno M, 1989. Seasonality in the biomass production of the Eucheuma strains in Northern Bohol, Philippines. In: Umezaki I, ed. Scientific Survey of Marine Algae and Their Resources in the Philippine Islands. Monbushio International Scientific Research Program, Japan, 71-80.

Uyenco FR; Saniel LS; Jacinto GS, 1981. The 'ice-ice' problem in seaweed farming. 10th International Seaweed Symposium. New York, USA: Walter de Gruyter, 625-630.

Vairappan CS, 2006. Seasonal occurrences of epiphytic algae on the commercially cultivated red alga Kappaphycus alvarezii (Solieriaceae, Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). Journal of Applied Phycology [Eighteenth International Seaweed Symposium, Bergen, Norway.], 18(3/5):611-617. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=100278

Vairappan CS; Chung CS; Lhonneur GB; Critchley AT, 2007. Epiphyte outbreak in Kappaphycus alvarezii (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) farms in Southeast Asia: Impact on the yield and quality of carrageenan. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007.

Weber-van Bosse A, 1928. Liste des algues du Siboga. IV. Part 3: Gigartinales et Rhodymeniales. In: Weber M, ed. Siboga Expedie. Monog. 59d: 393-533.

Wu CY; Li JJ; Xia EZ; Peng ZS; Tan SZ; Li J; Wen ZC; Huang XH; Cai ZL; Chen GJ, 1988. Transplant and artificial cultivation of Eucheuma striatum in China. Oceanol. Limnol. Sin., 19:410-417.

Distribution References

Ask E I, 2003. Creating a sustainable commercial Eucheuma cultivation industry: the importance and necessity of the human factor. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Seaweed Symposium, Cape Town, South Africa, 28 January-2 February 2001. [ed. by Chapman A R O, Anderson R J, Vreeland V J, Davison I R]. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 13-18.

Ask E I, Azanza R V, 2002. Advances in cultivation technology of commercial eucheumatoid species: a review with suggestions for future research. Aquaculture. 206 (3/4), 257-277. DOI:10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00724-4

Braud JP, Perez R, Lacherade G, 1974. (Etude des possibilités d’adaptation de l’algue rouge Eucheuma spinosum aux cotês des Afars et des Issas). In: Sci. Peche, Bull. Inst. Peches Marit. 238 1-16.

CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Conklin E J, Smith J E, 2005. Abundance and spread of the invasive red algae, Kappaphycus spp., in Kane'ohe Bay, Hawai'i and an experimental assessment of management options. Biological Invasions. 7 (6), 1029-1039. http://www.springerlink.com/content/l172120160062066/fulltext.pdf DOI:10.1007/s10530-004-3125-x

Dawes CJ, 1989. Temperature acclimation of cultured Eucheuma isiforme from Florida and E. alvarezii from the Philippines. In: J. Appl. Phycol. 1 59-69.

de Paula EJ, Pereira RTL, Ostini S, 1998. (Introducão de especies exoticas de Eucheuma and Kappaphycus (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) para fins de maricultura no litoral Brasileiro: abordagem teorica e experimental). [IV Congreso Latino Americano de Ficologia, II Reuniao Ibero-Americana de Ficologia e VII Reuniao Brasileira de Ficologia, São Paulo, Brazil], São Paulo, Brazil: 340-357.

de Reviers B, 1989. (Realisation d’ Une Ferme de Culture Industrielle de Eucheuma aux Maldives). In: Oceanis, 15 (5) 749-752.

Doty MS, 1980. Outplanting Eucheuma species and Gracilaria species in the Tropics. [Proceedings of the Symposium sponsored by Pacifica Area Sea Grant Advisory Program and the California Sea Grant College Program California Sea Grant, La Jolla, California: Pacific Seaweed Aquaculture], [ed. by Abbott IA, Foster MS, Eklund LF]. 19-22.

Doty MS, 1985. Eucheuma alvarezii sp. Nov. (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) from Malaysia. In: Taxonomy of Economic Seaweeds: With Reference to Some Pacific and Carribbean Species, [ed. by Abbott IA, Norris JN]. La Jolla, California, California Sea Grant College Program. Rep. T-CSGCP-011. 37-45.

Doty MS, 1985a. Eucheuma species (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta) that are major sources of carrageenan. In: Taxonomy of Economic Seaweeds: With Reference to Some Pacific and Carribbean Species, [ed. by Abbott IA, Norris JN]. La Jolla, California, California Sea Grant College Program. Rep. T-CSGCP-011. 47-61.

Doty MS, Alvarez VB, 1975. Status, problems, advances and economics of Eucheuma farms. In: Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 9 30-35.

Hayashi L, Oliveira E C, Bleicher-Lhonneur G, Boulenguer P, Pereira R T L, Seckendorff R von, Shimoda V T, Leflamand A, Vallée P, Critchley A T, 2007. Effects of selected cultivation conditions on the yield and properties of carrageenan of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta) in Brazil. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007 [XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007],

Hayashi L, Yokoya N S, Kikuchi D M, Oliveira E C, 2007a. Micro-propagation improved by colchicines and phytoregulators in Kappaphycus alvarezii "Edison de Paula" (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae), a strain selected from tetraspore progeny. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007 [XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007],

Lirasan T, Twide P, 1993. Farming Eucheuma in Zanzibar, Tanzania. In: Hydrobiologia, 260-261, 353-355.

Mairh OP, Soe-Htun U, Ohno M, 1986. Culture of Eucheuma striatum (Rhodophyta, Soliariaceae) in subtropical waters of Shikoku, Japan. In: Bot. Mar. 29 185-191.

Mairh OP, Zodape ST, Tewari A, Rajyagaru MR, 1995. Culture of marine red algae Kappaphycus striatum (Schmitz) Doty on the Saurashtra region, West Coast of India. In: Indian J. Mar. Sci. 24 24-31.

Msuya F E, Kyewalyanga M S, Lhonneur G B, Laflamand A, Mazoyer J, Critchley A T, 2007. The effect of nutrients on the growth and carrageenan properties of Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum in Zanzibar, Tanzania. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007 [XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007],

Muñoz J, Sahoo D, 2007. Impact of large scale Kappaphycus alvarezii cultivation in coastal waters of India. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007 [XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007],

Namudu M T, Pickering T D, 2006. Rapid survey technique using socio-economic indicators to assess the suitability of Pacific Island rural communities for Kappaphycus seaweed farming development. Journal of Applied Phycology. 18 (3/5), 241-249. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=100278 DOI:10.1007/s10811-006-9023-0

Nang H Q, Duc T M, Kha T, 2007. The growth of Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty and Kappaphycus striatum (Schmitz) cultivated in the different temperature seasons. In: XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007 [XIXth International Seaweed Symposium, Kobe, Japan, 26-31 March 2007],

Ohno M, Huynh Quang Nang, Hirase S, 1996. Cultivation and carrageenan yield and quality of Kappaphycus alvarezii in the waters of Vietnam. In: Journal of Applied Phycology [Opportunities from micro- and macroalgae. Proceedings of the 7th international conference of the International Association of Applied Algology, Knysna, South Africa, 16-19 April 1996.], 8 (4/5) [ed. by Grobbelaar J U, Kroon B M A, Whitton B A]. 431-437. DOI:10.1007/BF02178588

Paula E J de, Pereira R T L, Ohno M, 1999. Strain selection in Kappaphycus alvarezii var. alvarezii (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta) using tetraspore progeny. In: Journal of Applied Phycology [Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Seaweed Symposium, Cebex City, Philippines, 12-17 April, 1998.], 11 (1) [ed. by Brown MT]. 111-121. DOI:10.1023/A:1008085614360

Prakash J, 1990. Fiji. [Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Seaweed Culture and Marketing], [ed. by Adams T, Foscarini R]. Suva, Fiji: South Pacific Aquaculture Development Project, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1-9.

Rincones RE, Rubio JN, 1999. Introduction and commercial cultivation of the red alga Eucheuma in Venezuela for the production of phycocolloids. In: World Aquaculture Magazine, 30 (2) 57-61.

Russell DJ, 1982. Introduction of Eucheuma to Fanning Atoll, Kiribati, for the purpose of Mariculture. In: Micronesia, 18 (2) 35-44.

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Contributors

05/05/2008 Updated by:

Rhodora Azanza, The Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Velasquez Street,  Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines

Main Author
Rhodora Azanza
The Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Velasquez Street, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines

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