Bauhinia purpurea (purple bauhinia)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Bauhinia purpurea L.
Preferred Common Name
- purple bauhinia
Other Scientific Names
- Bauhinia castrata Blanco
- Bauhinia coromandeliana DC.
- Bauhinia platyphylla Zipp. ex Span.
- Bauhinia purpurea var. corneri de Wit
- Bauhinia purpurea var. violacea de Wit
- Bauhinia rosea Corner
- Bauhinia triandra Roxb.
- Bauhinia violacea Corner
- Caspareopsis purpurea (L.) Pittier
- Phanera purpurea (L.) Benth.
International Common Names
- English: butterfly tree; camel's foot tree; geranium tree; Hong Kong orchid tree; orchid tree; orchidtree; pink butterfly tree; purple butterfly tree; purple camel's foot; purple orchid tree
- Spanish: bauhinia roja; gorro de Napoleón; mariposa; palo de orquídeas; pie de cabra
- French: arbre à orchidées; fleurs pourpres
- Chinese: yang ti jia
Local Common Names
- Cuba: bauhinia; orquídea silvestre; puente de mono
- India: baswanpada; chambali; devakanchan; kachan; kanchan; kanchivala; kaniar; karar; keolav; khairwal; kolia; kota; kurial; manmadarai; raktakanchan; sono; survannamansaran
- Malaysia: tapak kuda
- Nepal: tanki
- Pakistan: kachan; karar; khairwal
- Philippines: alibangbang
- Thailand: sieo dok daen; sieowaan
EPPO code
- BAUPU (Bauhinia purpurea)
Trade name
- kachan
- karar
- khairwal
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageB. purpurea is a fast-growing tree that has a wide natural distribution range and has been introduced worldwide. This species has escaped from cultivation and has successfully established in a wide variety of habitats (Connor, 2001; PIER 2015). Once established, it grows displacing native vegetation (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012). In this species, seeds form very rapidly and mature trees may show numerous pods (Orwa et al., 2009). Additionally, high germination rates (~ 99%) have been recorded for this species when seeds were placed in moist conditions (Connor, 2001). Currently, B. purpurea is listed as invasive in Cuba, Fiji, New Caledonia and Western Samoa (MacKee, 1994; Space & Flynn, 2002; Smith, 1985; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2015). According to the IFAS Assessment of Non-Native Plants in Florida’s Natural Areas (Fox et al., 2008), B. purpurea is invasive and not recommended in Florida.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
- Genus: Bauhinia
- Species: Bauhinia purpurea
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageFabaceae is one of the largest families of flowering plants. Fabaceae includes about 745 genera and 19,500 species which can be found throughout the world growing in a great variety of climates and environments (Stevens, 2012). Bauhinia is listed within the tribe Cercideae in the Caesalpinoideae subfamily. This genus comprises about 250 species of trees, lianas, and shrubs distributed principally in tropical and temperate regions of the world (Connor, 2001; Stevens, 2012). Bauhinia species are frequently planted as ornamentals for their showy flowers and foliage (Connor, 2001).
Bauhinia was named by Linnaeus in honour of Jean (1541-1613) and Gaspard (1560-1624) Bauhin, who were Swiss botanists. The two lobes of the leaf exemplify the two brothers. The specific name refers to the purple colour of the flowers (Orwa et al., 2009).
Description
Top of page
The following description comes from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015):
Trees or erect shrubs, 7-10 m tall. Bark grayish to dark brownish, thick, smooth; branches puberulent when young, later glabrous. Petiole 3-4 cm; leaf blade suborbicular, 10-15 × 9-14 cm, stiffly papery, abaxially almost glabrous, adaxially glabrous, primary veins 9-11, secondary and higher order veins protruding, base shallowly cordate, apex bifid to 1/3-1/2, lobes slightly acute or rarely rounded at apex. Inflorescence a raceme with few flowers, or a panicle with up to 20 flowers, axillary or terminal. Flower buds fusiform, 4- or 5-ridged, with an obtuse apex. Pedicel 7-12 mm. Calyx open as a spathe into 2 lobes, one with 2 teeth and other 3-toothed. Petals light pink, oblanceolate, 4-5 cm, clawed. Fertile stamens 3; filaments ca. as long as petals. Staminodes 5 or 6, 6-10 mm. Ovary stalked, velvety; style curved; stigma slightly enlarged, peltate. Legume linear, flat, 12-25 × 2-2.5 cm; valves woody. Seeds compressed, suborbicular, 12-15 mm in diameter.
Distribution
Top of pageB. purpurea is native to southern and southeastern Asia, although the extent of the native distribution varies between authorities. The Flora of China Editorial Committee (2015) suggests that it is probably only native from Nepal through continental monsoon Asia (i.e., Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam), while Orwa et al. (2009) list it as also native to Indonesia, Japan and Taiwan. It has been actively planted as an ornamental in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world and now it can be found naturalized in North America, Central America, the West Indies, Africa, and on islands in the Indian and Pacific Ocean (Orwa et al., 2009; ILDIS, 2015; PIER, 2015; USDA-ARS, 2015).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 25 Feb 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Native | |||||
Bhutan | Present | Native | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Native | South China | ||||
-Anhui | Present | Native | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | Cultivated as ornamental | ||||
-Gansu | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | Cultivated as ornamental | ||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | Cultivated as ornamental | ||||
-Guizhou | Present | Native | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | Cultivated as ornamental | ||||
-Hebei | Present | Native | |||||
-Heilongjiang | Present | Native | |||||
-Henan | Present | Native | |||||
-Hubei | Present | Native | |||||
-Hunan | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Native | |||||
-Jiangxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Jilin | Present | Native | |||||
-Liaoning | Present | Native | |||||
-Ningxia | Present | Native | |||||
-Shaanxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Shandong | Present | Native | |||||
-Shanxi | Present | Native | |||||
-Sichuan | Present | Native | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | Introduced | Cultivated as ornamental | ||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Native | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Assam | Present | Native | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | |||||
-Dadra and Nagar Haveli | Present | Native | |||||
-Daman and Diu | Present | Native | |||||
-Delhi | Present | Native | |||||
-Goa | Present | Native | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | |||||
-Haryana | Present | Native | |||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Native | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | |||||
-Manipur | Present | Native | |||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Native | |||||
-Mizoram | Present | Native | |||||
-Nagaland | Present | Native | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | |||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | |||||
-Sikkim | Present | Native | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | |||||
-Tripura | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Iraq | Present | Introduced | |||||
Japan | Present | Native | |||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Laos | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | |||||
Nepal | Present | Native | |||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | |||||
Philippines | Present | Native | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | Cultivated as ornamental | ||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
Europe |
|||||||
Italy | Present | ||||||
-Sicily | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Tortola, Virgin Gorda | ||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Chiapas, Puebla, Tuxtlas, Tamaulipas, Veracruz | ||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Pitcairn | Present | Introduced | |||||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized in Aragua, Carabobo, Amacuro, Lara, Miranda, Esparta and Sucre |
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of introduction of B. purpurea is moderate to high, principally in areas near cultivation. This species has been actively introduced to be used as an ornamental and produces seeds that are dispersed by wind, water, and by humans. It has repeatedly escaped from cultivation and successfully established and naturalized in natural and disturbed areas throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Connor, 2001; Orwa et al., 2009).
Habitat
Top of pageB. purpurea grows in tropical and subtropical climates. It can be found growing in many vegetation types such as evergreen lowland rainforests, mountain forests, savanna, scrublands, dry deciduous forests and swamp forests on various soils (Contu, 2012). It can also grow in disturbed areas, secondary forest, along roadsides and in gardens, parks, and disturbed sites near urban areas (PROTA, 2015). In the West Indies (i.e., Puerto Rico and Cuba), B. purpurea grows in areas that annually receive at least 1500 to 2500 mm of rainfall, with well-drained and moist soils (Connor, 2001).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for B. purpurea is 2n = 28 (Kumari and Bir, 1989).
Physiology and Phenology
B. purpurea is a fast-growing, small tree to medium sized evergreen shrub, reaching 7.6 m in height and 17.8 cm in diameter. It can reach a height of 4.6 m in less than 2 years. Trees start flowering at a very early age of 2-3 years and yield viable seeds (Connor, 2001; Orwa et al., 2009).
In China, B. purpurea produces flowers from September to November and fruits from February to March (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015). In other Asiatic areas, it flowers from September to November when the plant is leafless and the seed ripens between February and May, with a tendency to be later in the west than in eastern Asia (Orwa et al., 2009).
Environmental Requirements
B. purpurea grows at elevations from about 500 to 2000 (-3000) metres. It prefers to grow in moist areas with mean annual temperature ranging from 12 to 21ºC and mean annual rainfall between 1000 and 5000 mm. It grows on a variety of sandy, loamy and gravelly soils in full sun in fertile, moisture-retentive but well-drained soils (Orwa et al., 2009). It demands plenty of light and requires good drainage. Severe frost kills the leaves of seedlings and saplings. The species is frost-hardy but less drought-hardy than other species of Bauhinia, though flowers best on dry soils (Orwa et al., 2009).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Tolerated | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
30 | 5 | 500 | 1500 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -1 | 10 |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 12 | 21 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 30 | 43 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 7 | 11 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 4 | 6 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 1000 | 5000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- saline
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageWithin its native distribution range, borers, mites and larvae of several insects feed on this plant species. Leaf spot and leaf scorch are the two diseases reported for B. purpurea. It is also susceptible to the viruses Clitoria yellow vein virus and Turnip rosette virus (Orwa et al., 2009).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageB. purpurea spreads by seeds. The seeds disperse from the pods and germinate on sites with favourable light and moisture conditions, while in unfavourable niches the radicle dries up (Orwa et al., 2009).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Disturbance | Naturalized along roadsides | Yes | Yes | MacKee, 1994 |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Escaped from cultivation | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Garden waste disposal | Often grown as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Ornamental purposes | Planted for showy flowers | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Often planted as ornamental | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Soil, sand and gravel | Seeds | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageB. purpurea is very fast growing with the potential to invade and displace native vegetation (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2015). It is now invading insular forests in Cuba, New Caledonia, Fiji, and Western Samoa (MacKee, 1994; Space and Flynn, 2002; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; PIER, 2015).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Hybridization
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageB. purpurea is primarily cultivated as an ornamental shrub and for erosion control. The leaves and flowers are used as fodder. This species has also medical uses such as a febrifugal, antidiarrhoeal and antidysenteric remedy and it is also used as an astringent. The bark is used for dyeing and tanning (Contu, 2012). The wood is used for making agricultural implements and for fuel (Connor, 2001; Orwa et al., 2009).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Shade and shelter
- Soil improvement
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Fuelwood
General
- Ornamental
Genetic importance
- Gene source
Materials
- Dye/tanning
- Dyestuffs
- Fibre
- Gum/resin
- Miscellaneous materials
- Pesticide
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- Seed trade
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageB. purpurea looks similar to Bauhinia monandra and B. variegata. All these species have been listed as naturalized and invasive in many tropical and subtropical countries. These three Bauhinia species can be distinguished by the following differences (Weeds of Australia, 2015):
- Bauhinia variegata is a small tree with relatively large leaves (up to 15 cm wide). Its flowers vary from entirely white to various shades of pink or purple with darker pink or reddish-purple markings and have five fertile stamens.
- Bauhinia monandra is a small tree with relatively large leaves (up to 20 cm wide). Its flowers are pale pink or whitish with darker pink or reddish-purple markings and have a single fertile stamen.
- Bauhinia purpurea is a small tree with relatively large leaves (up to 20 cm wide). Its flowers vary from pale purple to bright pinkish-purple and have three fertile stamens.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
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Ali SI, 1973. Flora of Pakistan. Caesalpiniaceae. Karachi, Pakistan: University of Karachi
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Connor KF, 2001. Bauhinia purpurea. In: Tropical Tree Seed Manual [ed. by Vozzo, J. A.]. Washington, USA: USDA Forest Service, 329-331. [Agriculture Handbook 721.]
Contu S, 2012. Bauhinia purpurea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T19891953A20027617.en
Devarnavadagi SB, Murthy BG, 1995. Performance of different tree species on eroded soils of northern dry zone of Karnataka. Advances in Agricultural Research in India, 4: 73-77
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2015. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Fox AM, Gordon DR, Dusky JA, Tyson L, Stocker RK, 2008. IFAS Assessment of Non-Native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas: Status Assessment. http://assessment.ifas.ufl.edu/assessments/
Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH
Herrera K, Lorence DH, Flynn T, Balick MJ, 2010. Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. Lawai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 146 pp
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Imada CT, Staples GW, Herbst DR, 2013. Annotated Checklist of Cultivated Plants of Hawaii. http://nsdb.bishopmuseum.org/
Karuppanan Vijayakumari, Perumal Siddhuraju, Karnam Janardhanan, 1997. Chemical composition, amino acid content and protein quality of the little-known legume Bauhinia purpurea L. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 73(3): 279-286
Kumari S, Bir SS, 1989. Karyomorphological evolution in Caesalpiniaceae. Journal of Cytology and Genetics, 24:149-163
McCormack G, 2013. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database. Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/search.asp
Naidu LGK, Reddy RS, Rao EVSP, Krishan P, Nasre RA, 1996. Potassium deficiency in crops - an emerging problem in red and lateritic soils. Journal of Potassium Research, 12(1): 23-29
Orwa C, Mutua A, Kindt R, Jamnadass R, Simons A, 2009. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96
Parker RN, 1956. A forest flora for the Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore, Pakistan: Government Printing Press
PIER, 2015. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2015. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.info
Roy MM, Roy RD, 1983. Lopping studies on Bauhinia purpurea Linn. Myforest, 19(4):193-196; 8 ref
Saini SS, Sudhesh Kumari, Atri NS, 1989. Two new leaf spot diseases from India caused by Alternaria. Current Science, 58(9): 514-515
Singh SP, 1989. Wasteland development. New Delhi, India: Agricole
Smith AC, 1985. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji. Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, USA: National Tropical Botanic Gardens, 758 pp
Space JC, Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 50 pp
Space JC, Flynn T, 2002. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 80 pp
Space JC, Lorence DH, LaRosa AM, 2009. Report to the Republic of Palau: 2008 update on Invasive Plant Species. Hilo, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, 227. http://www.sprep.org/att/irc/ecopies/countries/palau/48.pdf
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Distribution References
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Contributors
Top of page01/12/15 Original text by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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