| Picture | Title | Caption | Copyright |
|---|---|---|---|
| Flowering plant | A. arvensis flowering. Leaves of other species are present. | John T. Swarbrick | |
| Flowering plant | A. arvensis flowering. Note that blue and red form flowers are both present. Leaves of other species are present. | John T. Swarbrick | |
| Seedlings | John T. Swarbrick | ||
| Flower and seed pods. | Single flower (red form) and unripe seed pods of A. arvensis. | John T. Swarbrick | |
| Seedlings | Close-up of A. arvensis seedlings. Note matchstick for scale. | John T. Swarbrick | |
| Flowers | ©AgrEvo |
Datasheet
Anagallis arvensis (scarlet pimpernel)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Anagallis arvensis L. (1753)
Preferred Common Name
- scarlet pimpernel
Other Scientific Names
- Anagallis caerulea L. (1759)
- Anagallis coerulea Nathh.
- Anagallis foemina Miller
- Anagallis latifolia L. (1753)
- Anagallis mas Vill. (1787)
- Anagallis phoenicea Scop. (1772)
- Anagallis verticillata All. (1785)
International Common Names
- English: blue pimpernel; care-all; common pimpernel; poor man's weatherglass; red chickweed
- Spanish: coralillo; jaboncillo; murrajes; pilpis; pimpinela escarlata
- French: morgeline; morgeline d'ete; mouron des champs; mouron rouge
- Arabic: 'ayen el jamel
- Portuguese: escarlate; morriao vermelho; murriao
Local Common Names
- Algeria: lizireg; meridjana
- Brazil: escalarte
- Chile: pimpinela azul
- Croatia: krika poljska
- Czechoslovakia (former): drchnicka roini
- Denmark: rod arve
- Egypt: 'ain el-gamal; omm lebben; qonfooda; saboon gheit
- Finland: puna alpi
- Germany: Acker Gauchheil; Feld Gauchheil; Roter Gauchheil
- Hungary: mezel tikszem
- India: biliputi (Punjabi); krishnaneel
- Iran: bazrak vahshee
- Iraq: rmaimeeneh
- Italy: anagallide rossa; bellichina; mordi-gallina
- Japan: akabana aruri hakobe
- Lebanon: adhan el far el nabti; lubbayn; zaghila
- Macedonia: vidovcica crvena
- Mauritius: mouron
- Netherlands: gewoon guichelheil; guichelheil
- Norway: nonsblom; rodarve
- Pakistan: bili booti
- Poland: kurzyslad polny
- Slovenia: njivna kurja cesnjica
- South Africa: blouseblommetjie; rooimuur
- Sweden: rodarv; roedarv
- Taiwan: hwo-jin-gu
- Turkey: tarla farekulagi
- USA: poison chickweed; poisonweed; shepherd's clock; wink-a-peep
- USA/Hawaii: poisonous pimpernel
- Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro): vidovcia
EPPO code
- ANGAR (Anagallis arvensis)
- ANGCO (Anagallis coerulea)
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Primulales
- Family: Primulaceae
- Genus: Anagallis
- Species: Anagallis arvensis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
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The genus Anagallis contains about 28 species. They are of widespread origin, with many from the European-Mediterranean region, but only A. arvensis is a widespread weed. Two naturally occurring subspecies or colour forms are common: subsp. phoenicia with red flowers; and subsp. caerulea (or coerulea) with blue flowers. Both are extremely variable genetically and morphologically, and many other subspecies have been described. Gasquez and Compoint (1978) and Compoint and Gasquez (1980) discuss the taxonomy of the various forms. The subspecies hybridize readily, and deliberate horticultural hybridization and selection have resulted in a wide range of intermediate flower colours including mauve, pink and white. When naturalized as a weed, A. arvensis subspecies soon revert to either red or blue.
The meaning of Anagallis is obscure, but may mean unpretentious; arvensis refers to its frequent occurrence in fields.
The chromosome number for both subspecies is normally 2n = 40 (Clapham et al., 1987), but polyploidy is believed to occur in some varieties.
The meaning of Anagallis is obscure, but may mean unpretentious; arvensis refers to its frequent occurrence in fields.
The chromosome number for both subspecies is normally 2n = 40 (Clapham et al., 1987), but polyploidy is believed to occur in some varieties.
Description
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A. arvensis is typically a much branched, prostrate, annual herb with a fibrous root system, although the generally weak stems can also be ascending or even erect and up to 50 cm tall.
Dense mats of weak quadrangular stems usually spread outwards from a central base to cover up to 0.25 m². They are hairless and dotted with small dark glands, and have short internodes.
The leaves occur in opposite pairs or rarely in whorls of three. They are ovate, stalkless, 5 to 25 mm long, with rounded bases, smooth margins and bluntly pointed tips. They are smooth and hairless, densely dotted beneath with small dark glands, and usually dark-green.
The small orange-red, red, blue or occasionally pink or white flowers occur singly in the leaf axils on slender stalks, which hold the flowers erect whilst open but bend downwards in fruit. Each flower has a small, green, 5-pointed calyx, five oval or rounded petals 3 to 5 mm long, and five erect stamens around the unbranched central style.
The fruits are rounded, papery capsules 3 to 5 mm across, green at first and ripening to brown before the top breaks away to release the numerous seeds. Each seed is about 1 mm long, brown, angled and finely pitted.
The seedlings exhibit epigeal germination. The hypocotyl is 2 to 10 mm long, and the spreading cotyledons ovate to elliptic and 2 to 5 mm long. A single stem with small opposite leaves usually develops above them, with lateral branches developing in all leaf axils.
Dense mats of weak quadrangular stems usually spread outwards from a central base to cover up to 0.25 m². They are hairless and dotted with small dark glands, and have short internodes.
The leaves occur in opposite pairs or rarely in whorls of three. They are ovate, stalkless, 5 to 25 mm long, with rounded bases, smooth margins and bluntly pointed tips. They are smooth and hairless, densely dotted beneath with small dark glands, and usually dark-green.
The small orange-red, red, blue or occasionally pink or white flowers occur singly in the leaf axils on slender stalks, which hold the flowers erect whilst open but bend downwards in fruit. Each flower has a small, green, 5-pointed calyx, five oval or rounded petals 3 to 5 mm long, and five erect stamens around the unbranched central style.
The fruits are rounded, papery capsules 3 to 5 mm across, green at first and ripening to brown before the top breaks away to release the numerous seeds. Each seed is about 1 mm long, brown, angled and finely pitted.
The seedlings exhibit epigeal germination. The hypocotyl is 2 to 10 mm long, and the spreading cotyledons ovate to elliptic and 2 to 5 mm long. A single stem with small opposite leaves usually develops above them, with lateral branches developing in all leaf axils.
Distribution
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A. arvensis originated in Europe and has been spread, both deliberately as an ornamental and accidentally as a weed, throughout the world. It occurs throughout Europe, except for the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Spitzbergen and northern Russia (Ferguson, 1972). It probably now occurs in all temperate, subtropical and tropical countries, but is principally a weed in cool to warm temperate countries, and in the cooler areas of tropical highlands.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 25 Feb 2021| Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
| Algeria | Present | ||||||
| Cabo Verde | Present | ||||||
| Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | ||||||
| Egypt | Present | ||||||
| Ethiopia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Kenya | Present | ||||||
| Mauritius | Present | ||||||
| Morocco | Present | ||||||
| Nigeria | Present | ||||||
| Senegal | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| South Africa | Present | ||||||
| Tanzania | Present | ||||||
| Tunisia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
Asia |
|||||||
| Afghanistan | Present | ||||||
| Bhutan | Present | ||||||
| China | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| India | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -Bihar | Present | Original citation: Singh et al. (1996) | |||||
| -Gujarat | Present | ||||||
| -Haryana | Present | ||||||
| -Jammu and Kashmir | Present | ||||||
| -Madhya Pradesh | Present | Original citation: Kurchainia et al. (1995) | |||||
| -Maharashtra | Present | ||||||
| -Punjab | Present | ||||||
| -Rajasthan | Present | ||||||
| -Uttar Pradesh | Present | ||||||
| -West Bengal | Present | ||||||
| Iran | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Iraq | Present | ||||||
| Israel | Present | ||||||
| Japan | Present | ||||||
| -Honshu | Present | ||||||
| -Kyushu | Present | ||||||
| -Shikoku | Present | ||||||
| Jordan | Present | ||||||
| Lebanon | Present | ||||||
| Nepal | Present | ||||||
| Oman | Present | ||||||
| Pakistan | Present, Widespread |
| |||||
| Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
| South Korea | Present | ||||||
| Taiwan | Present | ||||||
| Turkey | Present | ||||||
| United Arab Emirates | Present | ||||||
| Yemen | Present | ||||||
Europe |
|||||||
| Belgium | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Bulgaria | Present | ||||||
| Cyprus | Present | ||||||
| Czechoslovakia | Present | ||||||
| Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | ||||||
| Denmark | Present | ||||||
| Finland | Present | ||||||
| France | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Germany | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Greece | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Hungary | Present | ||||||
| Italy | Present | ||||||
| Norway | Present | ||||||
| Poland | Present | ||||||
| Portugal | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| Russia | Present | ||||||
| Spain | Present | ||||||
| -Canary Islands | Present | ||||||
| Sweden | Present | ||||||
| Switzerland | Present | ||||||
| Ukraine | Present | ||||||
| United Kingdom | Present, Widespread | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
| Canada | Present | ||||||
| Mexico | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| United States | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -Hawaii | Present | ||||||
| -Maryland | Present | ||||||
| -Tennessee | Present | ||||||
Oceania |
|||||||
| Australia | Present | ||||||
| -New South Wales | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -Northern Territory | Present | ||||||
| -Queensland | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -South Australia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -Tasmania | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -Victoria | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| -Western Australia | Present, Widespread | ||||||
| New Caledonia | Present | ||||||
| New Zealand | Present, Widespread | ||||||
South America |
|||||||
| Argentina | Present | ||||||
| Brazil | Present | ||||||
| -Parana | Present | ||||||
| -Rio Grande do Sul | Present | ||||||
| -Santa Catarina | Present | ||||||
| -Sao Paulo | Present | ||||||
| Chile | Present | ||||||
| Peru | Present | ||||||
Habitat
Top of page
A. arvensis requires bare soil for germination, and is therefore only common in disturbed places. It requires moist soil but does not tolerate waterlogging, and for successful growth requires ample sunlight without undue shading. It tolerates ground frost to -10° C, but not frozen soil. The plant grows in a wide variety of soils so long as they are moist and well drained, and thrives near the sea and in sandy soils. The species appears most commonly as a winter annual in warmer climates and as a summer annual in colder areas and situations.
Hosts/Species Affected
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In addition to the crops listed, A. arvensis may occur as a minor weed of any crop which is grown within its range. It also occurs in gardens, meadows, turf, field borders and other disturbed uncultivated places including native vegetation.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pageBiology and Ecology
Top of page
The reproduction of A. arvensis is entirely by seed.
Shoot and root length, node and leaf number, and shoot dry weight all vary with both genotype and growth conditions, making it difficult to draw uniform conclusions about the responses of Anagallis arvensis to environmental conditions. Indian genotypes have been found to grow well under 50-100% sunlight, with lower light intensities being better tolerated during early growth.
Variations in genotype and phenotype result in large differences in seed production per plant; from 900 under field conditions in Britain to 250,000 in a glasshouse. Up to 2480 viable seeds have been recorded per square metre of soil after 8 years of cropping and 1 year of pasture in Britain, and in a separate observation seeds have been shown to remain viable in field soils for up to 10 years (Holm et al., 1977).
Dormancy in viable seeds relies on complex interrelationships between intrinsic and extrinsic factors, ensuring prolonged dormancy of some seeds whilst others germinate almost throughout the year, although only those germinating under favourable conditions may be expected to survive and reproduce. Germination in different genotypes has been shown to be dependent on various combinations of light and temperature. The species is capable of germination between 2 and 25°C, and optimum germination has been recorded in light at 10-20°C (Holm et al., 1977).
Although flowering in A. arvensis is usually initiated by lengthening days, this response is variable and may be modified by temperature so that some plants may flower under a wide range of daylengths.
The plant reacts to increasing soil nutrient status with greater and more vigorous growth.
The biology and ecology of A. arvensis are discussed in more detail in Holm et al. (1977) and Reddy et al. (1989).
Shoot and root length, node and leaf number, and shoot dry weight all vary with both genotype and growth conditions, making it difficult to draw uniform conclusions about the responses of Anagallis arvensis to environmental conditions. Indian genotypes have been found to grow well under 50-100% sunlight, with lower light intensities being better tolerated during early growth.
Variations in genotype and phenotype result in large differences in seed production per plant; from 900 under field conditions in Britain to 250,000 in a glasshouse. Up to 2480 viable seeds have been recorded per square metre of soil after 8 years of cropping and 1 year of pasture in Britain, and in a separate observation seeds have been shown to remain viable in field soils for up to 10 years (Holm et al., 1977).
Dormancy in viable seeds relies on complex interrelationships between intrinsic and extrinsic factors, ensuring prolonged dormancy of some seeds whilst others germinate almost throughout the year, although only those germinating under favourable conditions may be expected to survive and reproduce. Germination in different genotypes has been shown to be dependent on various combinations of light and temperature. The species is capable of germination between 2 and 25°C, and optimum germination has been recorded in light at 10-20°C (Holm et al., 1977).
Although flowering in A. arvensis is usually initiated by lengthening days, this response is variable and may be modified by temperature so that some plants may flower under a wide range of daylengths.
The plant reacts to increasing soil nutrient status with greater and more vigorous growth.
The biology and ecology of A. arvensis are discussed in more detail in Holm et al. (1977) and Reddy et al. (1989).
Notes on Natural Enemies
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No information is available on the natural enemies of A. arvensis, other than it being an alternate host for various crop diseases (see Economic Impact).
Impact
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The low growth and small root system of A. arvensis suggest that it is not a very competitive weed in most crops, and this is supported by a number of studies in different countries. It may, however, germinate early in spring before other weeds (and crops) become established, develop into dense masses, and thereby suppress the early growth of slow growing crops.
A. arvensis has often been considered to be poisonous to stock, but with little supporting evidence from the field. Indoor feeding tests show potential toxicity in some animals, but since it is selectively left in pastures by grazing animals it is probably unpalatable. There is a recent record of buffalo and cattle deaths in India after field grazing of A. arvensis (Sadekar et al., 1996). Cases of human dermatitis have been reported after handling the plant.
The seeds of A. arvensis contaminate small-seeded field crops such as lucerne and clovers.
A. arvensis is an alternative host for a range of other pests, including beet yellows closterovirus (Stevens et al., 1994), Alternaria brassicae (Ansari et al., 1990), Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Singh and Singh, 1986), Botrytis cinerea (Madhu-Meeta et al., 1986) and root knot nematodes (Alam, 1981).
A. arvensis has often been considered to be poisonous to stock, but with little supporting evidence from the field. Indoor feeding tests show potential toxicity in some animals, but since it is selectively left in pastures by grazing animals it is probably unpalatable. There is a recent record of buffalo and cattle deaths in India after field grazing of A. arvensis (Sadekar et al., 1996). Cases of human dermatitis have been reported after handling the plant.
The seeds of A. arvensis contaminate small-seeded field crops such as lucerne and clovers.
A. arvensis is an alternative host for a range of other pests, including beet yellows closterovirus (Stevens et al., 1994), Alternaria brassicae (Ansari et al., 1990), Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Singh and Singh, 1986), Botrytis cinerea (Madhu-Meeta et al., 1986) and root knot nematodes (Alam, 1981).
Threatened Species
Top of page| Threatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010 |
Uses
Top of page
All subspecies of A. arvensis have been used both as ornamental plants and as parents for hybridization to produce new cultivars.
The plant was formerly also used medicinally in Europe (Fogelfors, 1984), and is still so used in parts of India (Mukhopadhyay and Duary, 1995). It is apparently eaten as a salad and vegetable in Sweden (Fogelfors, 1984).
The plant was formerly also used medicinally in Europe (Fogelfors, 1984), and is still so used in parts of India (Mukhopadhyay and Duary, 1995). It is apparently eaten as a salad and vegetable in Sweden (Fogelfors, 1984).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Host of pest
General
- Ornamental
Human food and beverage
- Vegetable
Materials
- Poisonous to mammals
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of page
A. pumila, widespread in the tropics and occurring occasionally as a weed, can be distinguished from A. arvensis by its alternate leaves and whitish flowers which occur in leafy racemes towards the ends of the stems.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control
A. arvensis can usually be controlled by careful inter-row and interplant cultivation, although repeated cultivation may be necessary throughout its growing season. Competition from taller crops is important in reducing its competitiveness. Deep weed-free mulches will generally prevent further germination.
Chemical Control
A. arvensis is poorly controlled by many of the earlier selective herbicides that are safe to use in cereal crops, although spraying young seedlings with either 2,4-D or MCPA will give some control (Ivens, 1967).
A considerable amount of work with newer herbicides (especially in India) has shown that the following are safe and effective in appropriate crops: aziprotryne applied post-emergence in cabbage (Dastgheib and Popay, 1995); chlortoluron applied post-emergence achieved 90% control in wheat (Fazali and Khan, 1991); cyanazine + linuron gave 95% control in peas (Pisum sativum) (Hussain et al., 1990); fluchloralin in chickpea (Maliwal and Jain, 1991; Singh and Bajpai, 1992); fluroxypyr gave excellent control when applied post emergence in wheat (Balyan and Malik, 1992); isoproturon applied pre-emergence in wheat (Yadav et al., 1995) and mustard (Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993). Various other recommendations are listed below:
methabenzthiazuron (Maliwal and Jain, 1991);
metoxuron (Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993);
metribuzin (Bains et al., 1980);
metsulfuron-methyl (Pandey and Singh, 1994);
nitrofen (Sharma et al., 1988);
oxadiazon (Singh and Bajpai, 1992; Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993; Kurchainia et al., 1995);
pendimethalin (Hussain et al., 1990, Singh and Bajpai, 1992);
pendimethalin + oxyflurfen (Scheffer and Hume, 1988, Shams El Din and Salwau, 1994);
terbutron methyl (Pandey and Singh, 1994);
terbutryn + terbuthylazine (Shams El Din and Salwau, 1994);
tribenuron (Malik et al., 1993).
Recommendations for herbicide use in many crops in France are provided by Mamarot and Rodriguez (1997). These include, for example, aclonifen and bentazone.
Registrations for A. arvensis control in Australia include norflurazon, glufosinate-ammonium, bromoxynil + diflufenican, MCPA + terbutryn, metribuzin, chlorthal, chloradiazon, and DSMA + MCPA (Hamilton, 1997).
Biological Control
There have been no attempts at biological control of A. arvensis.
References
Top of pageAlam MM, 1981. Some additions to the hosts of root-knot nematodes. Indian Phytopathology, 34(2):243
Borin M, Zanin G, Zuin MC, Cook HF, Lee HC, 1995. The comparison of seed banks in conventional and ridge-tilled soils in north-eastern Italy. In: Soil Management in Sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings, Third International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture, Wye College, University of London. Ashford, UK: Wye College Press.
Clapham AR, Tutin TG, Moore DM, 1987. Flora of the British Isles. Third edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Dastgheib F, Popay AJ, 1995. Weed control in cabbages with aziprotryne, clethodim and their combination. Proceedings of the 48th New Zealand Plant Protection Conference. Rotorua, New Zealand: New Zealand Plant Protection Society 331-332.
Duarte MC, 1995. 35. Capparaceae. In: Paiva J, Martins ES, Diniz MA, Moreira I, Gomes I, Gomes S, eds. Flora de Cabo Verde. Lisboa, Portugal: Instituto de Investigat¦o Cientffica Tropical / Instituto de Investigat¦o e Desenvolvimento Agrário, 3-17.
Ferguson LF, 1972. In: Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA, eds. Flora Europaea. Vol. 3. Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 28-29.
Figueiredo E, 1995. Cape Verde Flora. Vascular Plants. Primulaceae. Flora de Cabo Verde No. 40. Lisbon, Portugal: Instituto de Investigacao Cienetifica Tropical.
Fogelfors H, 1984. Useful weeds? Part 3. Lantmannen, 105(4):49
Hamilton K, 1997. PESKEM - USES - PESTS: The Australian Directory of Registered Pesticides and their Uses. 15th edition. Gatton, Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland.
Hassawy GS, Tammimi SA, Al-Lizzi H, 1968. Weeds in Iraq. Baghdad, Iraq: College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad.
Hiepko P, 1988. Primulaceae. In: Hafliger TJ, Wolf M, eds. Dicot Weeds, Vol. 1. Basle, Switzerland: CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., 259-263.
Hnatiuk RJ, 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 11. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Horng H-C, Leu L-S, 1980. Weeds of Cultivated Land in Taiwan. Taipei, Taiwan: Weed Science Society of the Republic of China.
Ivens GW, 1967. East African Weeds and their Control. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.
Koblihova H, 1989. Changes in the weed vegetation in the Bohemian Karst. Preslia, 61(4):335-342
MacKee HS, 1985. Les Plantes Introduites et Cultivees en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Volume hors series, Flore de la Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances. Paris, France: Museum Nationelle d'Histoire Naturelle.
Mamarot J, Rodriguez A, 1997. Sensibilité des Mauvaises Herbes aux Herbicides. 4th edition. Paris, France: Association de Coordination Technique Agricole.
Mukhopadhyay SK, Duary B, 1995. Ethnobotany of some common crop field weeds in a sub-humid agricultural tract of West Bengal. In: Das Gupta MK, Ghosh DC, Gupta DD, Majumdar DK, Chattopadhyay GN, Ganguli PK, Munsi PS, Bhattacharya DJ, eds. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture in Sub-humid Zone. Birbhum, India: Visva-Bharati Institute of Agriculture, 272-277.
National Taiwan University, 1968. Weeds Found in Cultivated Land in Taiwan. Vol. 2. Taipei, Taiwan: Dept of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University.
Neal MC, 1965. In Gardens of Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Special Publication No. 50. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum.
Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp.
Singh G, Singh OP, 1996. Response of late-sown wheat (Triticum aestivum) to seeding methods and weed-control measures in flood-prone areas. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 41:237-242.
Tang HY, 1991. The Field Weeds of China. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Scientific and Educational Publishing House.
Tanji A, Taleb A, 1994. Weeds on tirs soils in Chaouia. Al Awamia, No. 86:115-130
Taylor P, 1963. 142. Primulaceae. In: Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, eds. 1963. Flora of West Tropical Africa. Volume 2, 2nd edition. London, UK: Crown Agents, 303-304.
University of Tennessee, 1965. Tennessee Weeds. Knoxville, Tennessee, USA: Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Tennessee.
Vallejo A de, 1980. Malezas de Chile. Santiago, Chile: Estacion Experimental La Platina.
Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute.
Whibley DJE, Christensen TJ, 1982. Garden Weeds: Identification and Control. Handbook 3. Adelaide, Australia: Adelaide Botanic Gardens.
Wilding JL, Barnett AG, Amor RL, 1986. Crop Weeds. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.
Distribution References
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Duarte MC, 1995. Capparaceae. In: Flora de Cabo Verde, [ed. by Paiva J, Martins ES, Diniz MA, Moreira I, Gomes I, Gomes S]. Lisboa, Portugal: Instituto de Investigação Cientifica Tropical / Instituto de Investigação e Desenvolvimento Agrário. 3-17.
Figueiredo E, 1995. (Cape Verde Flora). In: Vascular Plants. Primulaceae. Flora de Cabo Verde No. 40, Lisbon, Portugal: Instituto de Investigacao Cienetifica Tropical.
Fogelfors H, 1984. Useful weeds? Part 3. (Nyttiga ogräs? Del 3.). Lantmannen. 105 (4), 49.
Hiepko P, 1988. Primulaceae. In: Dicot Weeds, 1 [ed. by Hafliger TJ, Wolf M]. Basle, Switzerland: CIBA-GEIGY Ltd. 259-263.
Hnatiuk RJ, 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. In: Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 11, Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Horng H-C, Leu L-S, 1980. Weeds of Cultivated Land in Taiwan., Taipei, Taiwan: Weed Science Society of the Republic of China.
MacKee HS, 1985. (Les Plantes Introduites et Cultivees en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Volume hors series, Flore de la Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances)., Paris, France: Museum Nationelle d'Histoire Naturelle.
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