Amorpha fruticosa (false indigo-bush)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Environmental Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Principal Source
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Amorpha fruticosa L.
Preferred Common Name
- false indigo-bush
Other Scientific Names
- Amorpha angustifolia F.E.Boynton
- Amorpha arizonica Rydb.
- Amorpha bushii Rydb.
- Amorpha croceolanata Watson
- Amorpha curtissii Rydb.
- Amorpha dewinkeleri Small
- Amorpha emarginata Eastw.
- Amorpha fragrans Sweet
- Amorpha humilis Tausch
- Amorpha occidentalis Abrams
- Amorpha pendula Carriere
- Amorpha tennesseensis Kuntze
- Amorpha virgata Small
International Common Names
- English: bastard indigo; desert false indigo
- French: amorphe arbustif; faux indigo; indigo batard
- Russian: amorfa kustarnikovaya
- German: gemeiner bastardindigo; gemeiner Bleibusch
Local Common Names
- Czech Republic: netvarec kroviti
- Italy: falso indaco
- Netherlands: indigobloem
- Poland: amorfa krzewiasta
- Turkey: çivit ağacı
EPPO code
- AMHFR (Amorpha fruticosa)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageAmorpha fruticosa is a fast-growing, deciduous shrub that grows in wetlands and disturbed habitats. It is native to North America but has spread across Asia and Europe, likely through its use as an ornamental plant. It is now generally accepted to be among the most invasive alien species in Europe. It has a high reproductive capacity, forms dense thickets and outcompetes native flora, changing successional patterns and reducing biodiversity. Repeated cutting and mowing can help to control populations of this species and in disturbed habitats, some herbicides have been successful in controlling its spread.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Amorpha
- Species: Amorpha fruticosa
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThere are approximately 15 accepted species in the genus Amorpha (Cullen, 1995; Roskov et al., 2018). A. fruticosa was first described by Linnaeus in 1753. As the only member of the genus at the time, it was designated as the type species (Wilbur, 1975). The lectotype, designated by Stearn (1957), is a specimen preserved at the British Natural History Museum (Herb. Clifford: 353, Amorpha 1). A. fruticosa is highly morphologically variable, and many varieties and forms were described in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, based on both vegetative and sexual characteristics (IPNI, 2005; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2018).
Description
Top of pageThe following description is from the Flora of China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2010):
Deciduous shrubs, 1-4(-6) m tall. Stems pubescent, glabrescent. Leaves 10-15-(30) cm; stipules bristlelike; petiole 1-2 cm; leaflets 11-25, ovate to elliptic, 1-4 x 0.6-2 cm, abaxially white puberulent, adaxially glabrous or sparsely pubescent, black glandular-dotted, base broadly cuneate or rounded, apex acute, obtuse, or retuse, with a shortly curved spinose tip. Racemes 1 to many, terminal or subterminal, 7-15 cm, densely pubescent; bracts 3-4 mm. Calyx 2.5-3.0 mm long; teeth triangular, unequal, shorter than tube. Standard purple, obcordate, ca 6 mm; wings and keel absent. Style puberulent. Legume dark brown, oblong, curved, 6-10 x 2-3 mm, apex beaked, strongly glandular-dotted, 1-seeded. Seed lustrous, reniform, ca 5 mm, curved upward.
Distribution
Top of pageA. fruticosa is native to North America and introduced across much of Asia and Europe (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2010; USDA-ARS, 2018). It is also reported to be invasive in a number of European countries (DAISIE, 2015; EPPO, 2018).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Feb 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Asia |
|||||||
Armenia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Azerbaijan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
China | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Anhui | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Gansu | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hebei | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Heilongjiang | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Henan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hubei | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Inner Mongolia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Jiangsu | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Jiangxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Jilin | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Liaoning | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ningxia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Qinghai | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Shaanxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Shandong | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Shanxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Sichuan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Xinjiang | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Zhejiang | Present | Introduced | |||||
Georgia | Present | ||||||
India | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Iraq | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Kazakhstan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Kyrgyzstan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
North Korea | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Tajikistan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Turkey | Present | Introduced | |||||
Turkmenistan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Uzbekistan | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Austria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belarus | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belgium | Present | Introduced | Casual | ||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bulgaria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Croatia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Czechia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized | |||
Estonia | Present | Introduced | |||||
France | Present, Localized | ||||||
-Corsica | Absent | ||||||
Germany | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized | |||
Greece | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized | |||
Hungary | Present | ||||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized | |||
Lithuania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Gudžinskas and Žalneravicius (2015) | |||
Moldova | Present | Introduced | |||||
Montenegro | Present | Introduced | |||||
North Macedonia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Poland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized | |||
Romania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Russia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Central Russia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Northern Russia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Russian Far East | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Southern Russia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Western Siberia | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Serbia | Present | ||||||
Slovakia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Slovenia | Present | ||||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Naturalized | |||
Switzerland | Present | ||||||
Ukraine | Present | Introduced | |||||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Canada | Present | Present based on regional distribution | |||||
-Manitoba | Present | Native | |||||
-Ontario | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Quebec | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution | |||||
-Alabama | Present | Native | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Native | |||||
-Arkansas | Present | Native | |||||
-California | Present | Native | |||||
-Colorado | Present | Native | |||||
-Connecticut | Present | Native | |||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Georgia | Present | Native | |||||
-Idaho | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Illinois | Present | Native | |||||
-Indiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Iowa | Present | Native | |||||
-Kansas | Present | Native | |||||
-Kentucky | Present | Native | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Maine | Present | Native | |||||
-Maryland | Present | Native | |||||
-Massachusetts | Present | Native | |||||
-Michigan | Present | Native | |||||
-Minnesota | Present | Native | |||||
-Mississippi | Present | Native | |||||
-Missouri | Present | Native | |||||
-Nebraska | Present | Native | |||||
-New Hampshire | Present | Native | |||||
-New Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
-New York | Present | Native | |||||
-North Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-North Dakota | Present | Native | |||||
-Ohio | Present | Native | |||||
-Oklahoma | Present | Native | |||||
-Oregon | Present | ||||||
-Pennsylvania | Present | Native | |||||
-South Carolina | Present | Native | |||||
-South Dakota | Present | Native | |||||
-Tennessee | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present | Native | |||||
-Vermont | Present | Native | |||||
-Virginia | Present | Native | |||||
-Washington | Present | ||||||
-West Virginia | Present | Native | |||||
-Wisconsin | Present | Native | |||||
-Wyoming | Present | Native | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageA. fruticosa was introduced to Europe in 1724 as an ornamental plant (Karmyzova, 2014). It was first recorded in Lithuania in 2013, where it is now naturalized and invasive (Gudžinskas and Žalneravičius, 2015).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageIts use as an ornamental, means that there is a risk of further spread of A. fruticosa to other countries in Europe and Asia and also potentially to other continents, such as Africa and Central America.
Habitat
Top of pageA. fruticosa grows in a wide range of habitats, including riparian and alluvial habitats, sandy banks of ravines, coastal areas, dunes and disturbed land, such as plantations, orchards, meadows and urban areas (Szigetvári, 2002; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2010; Karmyzova, 2014).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
A. fruticosa has a chromosome number of 2n = 40 (Bo et al., 2006). Hybrids are known to occur among species in the genus Amorpha, including between A. fruticosa and A. nitens (Taft, 2013).
Reproductive Biology
A. fruticosa is a fast growing shrub, that produces a high number of viable seeds. Pollination is performed by insects (mainly bees, belonging to the genus Andrena). Pollen is small (10-25 µm), isopolar, oblate, with three colporous apertures (PalDat, 2000). A. fruticosa also spreads vegetatively by sprouting, and stems can root at the nodes (Szigetvári, 2002).
Physiology and Phenology
A. fruticosa uses the C3 pathway of photosynthesis. It flowers from April to June in its native range, and up to July in some areas where it has been introduced (e.g. Europe). In China, this species flowers in May and June and fruits from July to September (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2010).
Associations
A. fruticosa is associated with species that form coastal or riparian communities. These include: Ammophila arenaria, Artemisia campestris, Bromus sterilis, Carduus pycnocephalus, Crucianella maritima, Helichrysum stoechas, Juniperus spp., Portulaca oleracea, Sonchus spp. and Tamarix spp. A. fruticosa is also a host plant for Acanalonia conica (EPPO, 2018).
Environmental Requirements
It grows in medium to wet, well-drained soils and is tolerant of partial shade and occasional flooding. Although it prefers to grow along river banks, it can tolerate dry soils. Its well-developed root system means it is relatively wind tolerant (Kozuharova et al., 2017).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Preferred | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | |
Df - Continental climate, wet all year | Preferred | Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
50-55 | 20-25 |
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acanthoscelides pallidipennis | Parasite | Seeds | not specific | Gagic et al., 2008 | Serbia | |
Zerene cesonia | Herbivore | Whole plant | not specific |
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
The seed pods of A. fruticosa are buoyant and are spread by water (Szigetvári, 2002; Blagojević et al., 2015).
Vector Transmission (biotic)
Birds and small mammals may disperse the seeds of A. fruticosa (Szigetvári, 2002).
Intentional Introduction
A. fruticosa has been intentionally introduced to countries across Europe and Asia as an ornamental species (USDA-ARS, 2018), and later for degraded land reclamation (Kozuharova et al., 2017).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Yes | Karmyzova, 2014 | ||
Habitat restoration and improvement | Yes | Yes | Kozuharova et al., 2017 | |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS, 2018 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Water | Yes | Yes | Blagojević et al., 2015 |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact on Habitats
Szigetvári (2002) describes A. fruticosa as a transformer species that colonizes disturbed areas, particularly floodplain pastures and meadows. Through rapid growth, it forms dense thickets and outcompetes native flora, changing successional patterns and reducing biodiversity (Szigetvári, 2002). It is known to be particularly invasive in riparian and alluvial habitats and is generally accepted to be among the most invasive alien species in Europe (Protopopova et al., 2006; Kozuharova et al., 2017). Allelopathic effects of A. fruticosa have also been reported (Csiszár, 2009).
Impact on Biodiversity
Brigić et al. (2014) demonstrated that changes to the vegetation structure and microclimate of habitats, caused by the invasion of A. fruticosa, have a significant effect on the composition of soil invertebrates.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Tolerant of shade
- Highly mobile locally
- Long lived
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Reproduces asexually
- Has high genetic variability
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Increases vulnerability to invasions
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Allelopathic
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult to identify/detect in the field
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
A. fruticosa has been a popular ornamental plant since the 1700s (Kozuharova et al., 2017). In 2016, Cuivăț et al. reviewed its value in terms of its potential medicinal, food and industrial uses.
Social Benefit
Recent research has demonstrated the potential health benefits of A. fruticosa, particularly in treating diabetes and metabolic disease (Kozuharova et al., 2017)
Environmental Services
A. fruticosa is a honey plant and an important food source for bees across its native and introduced range (Kozuharova et al., 2017). Its well-developed root system means that it has also been planted to stabilize soil and prevent erosion, e.g. on railway embankments (Kozuharova et al., 2017).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Land reclamation
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Ornamental
- garden plant
- Potted plant
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageA. fruticosa is similar to a number of species in the genus Amorpha, including A. laevigata, A. ouachitensis and A. roemeriana. A. fruticosa can be recognized by its usually eglandular petioles, and leaflets with an acute or obtuse apex (never emarginate) (Wilbur, 1975).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Biological Control
Research carried out in Serbia in 2006 demonstrated the potential of Acanthoscelides pallidipennis as a biological control agent of A. fruticosa (Gagic et al., 2008).
Chemical Control
Glyphosate and triclopyr trimethylamine have been used to control A. fruticosa in disturbed habitats in Serbia (Blagojević et al., 2015).
Mechanical Control
Szigetvári (2002) demonstrated that, in floodplain meadows, A. fruticosa can be controlled by systematic and repeated cutting and mowing or through continuous grazing.
A review by Ciuvăț et al. (2016) in Romania identified a range of potential uses of A. fruticosa, suggesting that placing a value on the species may help to sustainably control its spread. Mechanical control is the primary means of control for populations in protected areas, where use of chemicals is prohibited (Ciuvăț et al., 2016).
References
Top of pageBo L, Chengbin C, Xiulan L, Liwang Q, Suying H, 2006. Karyotype analysis and physical mapping of 45S rDNA in eight species of Sophora, Robinia, and Amorpha. Frontiers of Biology in China, 1(3), 290-294.
Brouillet L, Coursol F, Meades SJ, Favreau M, Anions M, Bélisle P, Desmet P, 2010. VASCAN, the Database of Vascular Plants of Canada. http://data.canadensys.net/vascan/
Cullen J, 1995. Amorpha L. In: The European Garden Flora. Volume 4, [ed. by Cullen J, Alexander JCM, Brady A, Brickell CD, et al.]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
DAISIE, 2015. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway. http://www.europe-aliens.org/
EPPO, 2014. PQR database. Paris, France: European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. http://www.eppo.int/DATABASES/pqr/pqr.htm
EPPO, 2018. EPPO Global database (available online). Paris, France: EPPO.https://gd.eppo.int/
Euro+Med PlantBase, 2011. Euro+Med PlantBase – the information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity. http://www.emplantbase.org/home.html
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2010. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press and Harvard University Herbaria.http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Gagic R, Mihajlovic R, Glavendekic M, 2008. Acanthoscelides pallidipennis (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), a spermatophagous insect of indigo bush (Amorpha fruticosa L.) and its natural enemies in Serbia. Acta Herbologica, 17(2), 195-201.
IPNI, 2005. The International Plant Names Index. https://www.ipni.org/
Karmyzova L, 2014. Ecological study of invasive Amorpha fruticosa L. at research biological stations within Steppe zone, Ukraine. The Journal of V.N.Karazin Kharkiv National University, Series: biology, 20(1100), 300-304.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2018. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
PalDat, 2000. PalDat - a palynological database. https://www.paldat.org/
Roskov Y, Ower G, Orrell T, Nicolson D, Bailly N, Kirk PM, Bourgoin T, DeWalt RE, Decock W, De Wever A, van Nieukerken E, Zarucchi J, Penev L, 2018. In: Species 2000 and ITIS Catalogue of Life, 24th September 2018, Leiden, The Netherlands: Species 2000, Naturalis.http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col/search/all
Stearn WT, 1957. An introduction to the Species Plantarum and cognate botanical works of Carl Linnaeus. In: Species Plantarum, A Facsimile of the First Edition, 1753, [ed. by Linnaeus C]. London, UK: Ray Society. 176 pp.
Szigetvári C, 2002. Initial steps in the regeneration of a floodplain meadow after a decade of dominance of an invasive transformer shrub, Amorpha fruticosa L. Tiscia, 33, 67-77.
Taft JB, 2013. Morphological differences and characteristics of population genetic structure and inter-fertility between Amorpha nitens Boynton and A. fruticosa L. in Illinois. In: Illinois Natural History Survey Technical Report 2013(17) . Illinois, USA: Prairie Research Institute.https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/46505
USDA-ARS, 2015. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory.https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Wilbur RL, 1975. A revision of the North American genus Amorpha (Leguminosae-Psoraleae). Rhodora, 77(811), 337-409.
Distribution References
Brouillet L, Coursol F, Meades SJ, Favreau M, Anions M, Bélisle P, Desmet P, 2010. VASCAN, the Database of Vascular Plants of Canada., http://data.canadensys.net/vascan/
CABI Data Mining, Undated. CAB Abstracts Data Mining.,
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
DAISIE, 2015. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway., http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Euro+Med PlantBase, 2011. Euro+Med PlantBase – the information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity., http://www.emplantbase.org/home.html
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2010. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden Press and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Contributors
Top of page01/09/16 Original text by:
Duilio Iamonico, Department of Planning, Design and Technology of Architecture, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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