Senna obtusifolia
(sicklepod)

Pictures

Top of page

Identity

Top of page

Preferred Scientific Name

• Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby

Preferred Common Name

• sicklepod

Other Scientific Names

• Cassia obtusifolia L.
• Cassia tora L.
• Cassia tora var. obtusifolia (L.) Haines
• Emelista tora (L.) Britton & Rosa
• Senna tora (L.) Roxb.

International Common Names

• Spanish: ejotillo; sambran (Spain); yerba hedionda (Cuba)
• French: pistache marron

Local Common Names

• : coffeeweed; habucha; peanut weed
• Australia: Chinese senna; coffee weed; Java bean; sicklepod senna
• Bolivia: aya-poroto; mamuri
• Brazil: fedegoso; fedegoso-branco; mata pasto; matapasto liso
• Colombia: bicho; bichomacho; chilinchil
• Cuba: guanina
• Dominican Republic: brusca cimarrona; brusca hembra
• El Salvador: comida de murcielago; frijolillo
• French Guiana: cafe zerb pian
• Guatemala: ejote de invierno; ejotil
• Madagascar: voamahatsara
• Mauritius: cassepuante; herbe pistache
• Paraguay: taperva; taperva moroti; taperva sayju
• Puerto Rico: dormidera
• Venezuela: chiquichique

EPPO code

• CASOB (Cassia obtusifolia)

Summary of Invasiveness

Top of page

S. obtusifolia and S. tora are tall subshrubs that produce a massive seed bank and are readily dispersed by livestock. They are primarily highly economically detrimental to a number of agricultural crops especially in North America and Australasia. S. obtusifolia is spreading and displacing native vegetation in the Australasia/Pacific regions and is invasive in parts of East Africa. In places it produces impenetrable monotypic stands. In Australia it is thought to increase the risk of damage to forest by fire.

Taxonomic Tree

Top of page

• Domain: Eukaryota
•     Kingdom: Plantae
•         Phylum: Spermatophyta
•             Subphylum: Angiospermae
•                 Class: Dicotyledonae
•                     Order: Fabales
•                         Family: Fabaceae
•                             Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
•                                 Genus: Senna
•                                     Species: Senna obtusifolia

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Top of page Many recent floras use the new nomenclature which puts many former Cassia spp. including C. obtusifolia and C. tora, into the genus Senna, and the new classification of Irwin and Barneby (1982) is used here. However, where acknowledging these two species as separate (following Irwin and Barneby 1982), in terms of their agronomic importance and control, there is probably little difference between S. obtusifolia and S. tora, and both are included together for the purpose of this datasheet. Thus, whereas S. tora (and C. tora) are included here as non-preferred scientific names, they are not strictly synonyms.

There has been much debate on the classification of S. obtusifolia. Linnaeus (1753), De Wit (1955) and Randell (1988) recognize Cassia obtusifolia and Cassia tora as separate species but others (Bentham, 1871) recognized them as the same species, and Haines (1922) claims that they are intraspecific taxa within the same species. The Botanical Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture advises that Cassia obtusifolia is a synonym of Cassia tora and this was accepted by Holm et al. (1997).

Characteristics proposed to separate S. obtusifolia and S. tora include glands on the leaf rachis, length of flower pedicel, length and width of petals, degree of fruit curvature, seed coat features, chemical content and smell of crushed foliage (see Morphology section). Randell (1995) studied the taxonomy and evolution of S. obtusifolia and S. tora and concluded that S. tora probably evolved in Asia from plants of S. obtusifolia. Randell (1988) separated the two taxa on the following basis: S. obtusifolia: petioles 1.5-2 cm long; fruiting pedicels 2-3 cm long; anthers with short beaks; seed areole narrow, not longitudinal. S. tora: petioles 2-4.5 cm long; fruiting pedicels to 1.5 cm long; anthers truncate, beakless; seed areole broad, longitudinal.

Upadhyaya and Singh (1986) claim that S. tora and S. obtusifolia differ in their anthraquinone content and that they also fail to hybridize. Most material described as S. tora from Africa and America (north, south and central) is S. obtusifolia but both species are found in Asia and Australia. The confused nomenclature is apparent in the literature; S. tora is often cited when it should be called S. obtusifolia but it is often not possible to be confident about the correct identification where the species co-exist.

The original genus Cassia is from the Greek kasia, derived by Dioscorides (1st century AD) from the Hebrew quetsi'oth, denoting 'fragrant shrubs'; obtusifolia combines the Latin obtusos, meaning 'blunt', with folius, a leaf, and refers to the rounded leaf apices (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).

Description

Top of page S. obtusifolia and S. tora are erect, bushy, annual or short-lived perennial herbs growing to heights of 1.5 to 2.5 m (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992: Holm et al., 1997). The stems are obtusely angled to cylindrical, smooth, often highly branched. The robust taproot is about 1 m long, with several descending laterals. Unlike many legumes, the roots of S. obtusifolia and S. tora do not support nodules of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Two stipules, about 15 mm long, are present where the alternate leaves join the stem. The first true leaves are pinnate with two pairs of leaflets. Leaves in mature plants are even-pinnately compound, 8 to 12 cm long, with three pairs of leaflets. The leaves of S. tora are rank-smelling when crushed (Holm et al., 1997) but S. obtusifolia is less pungent. Leaflets are obovate to oblong-obovate with asymmetrical bases, increasing in size from the base to the apex of the leaf, up to 6 cm long and 4 cm wide. The tips of the leaflets are bluntly oval to round, with a very small point at the tip of the main vein. A small, rod-like gland is situated on the rhachis between the lower pair of leaflets but, in S. tora, a second gland is present between the middle pair of leaflets. A second gland is sometimes present in S. obtusifolia but only on lower leaves (Brenan, 1967).

Flowers are solitary or in pairs, in leaf axils, on pedicels 1-3 cm long (1 cm in S. tora). The calyx has five free, unequal sepals, keeled on the back. The corolla has five free, spreading, yellow petals, obovate to obovate-oblong, narrowed at the base and rounded at the tip, except for the standard (uppermost petal) which has two lobes. There are 10 stamens of which seven are fertile and three are staminodes. The ovary has numerous ovules. In S. obtusifolia, the stigma is oblique with an acute rim; in S. tora it is straight with two rolled back lips (ACTA, 1986a, b). The fruit is a brownish-green, slender, curved, compressed pod, 10 to 25 cm long and 2 to 6 mm wide, containing 25 to 30 seeds. Pods are slightly indented between the seeds. There are two major variants of S. obtusifolia in the Americas, differing primarily in pod type. Plants from the Antilles and the USA have pods 3.5-6 mm in diameter, as do African specimens and those from India, Indo Malaya and China (Irwin and Barneby, 1982). In South America and the Philippines, the pod is narrower (2-3.5 mm) in diameter and strongly curved. Seeds are rhomboidal, 4 to 5 mm long, shiny and yellowish brown to dark red. In S. obtusifolia, the areole (marking on the seed coat) is very narrow (0.3 to 0.5 mm wide); in S. tora it is large (1.5 to 2 mm wide) (Brenan, 1967).

Plant Type

Top of page Annual
Biennial
Broadleaved
Seed propagated
Shrub
Woody

Distribution

Top of page

S. obtusifolia is a native to tropical South America but has become widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics. However, the extent of its original distribution in the neotropics is unknown. It has been generally confused with S. tora, a species confined to Asia from India to China and Fiji, with the possible exception of one Congo specimen and a single specimen from Mafia Island, Tanzania (Brenan, 1967). In the USA the range of S. obtusifolia is similar to that of 150 years ago although infestations are still increasing (Teem et al. 1980). In northern Queensland, Australia, it infests about 600,000 ha and is still spreading. Although S. obtusifolia can become widespread in Australia, a model predicts that its optimal habitat will be coastal Queensland and New South Wales. This model also provides a predicted world distribution map that highlights regions such as much of southern Europe, South-East Africa (where Witt and Luke (2017) have recorded this species as invasive), Madagascar and North New Zealand as having a high potential to support populations of the species. There is also some evidence that a cold tolerant biotype may be evolving and this would further increase the potential range of the weed (Mackey et al., 1997).

Distribution Table

Top of page

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 10 Jan 2020

History of Introduction and Spread

Top of page Our knowledge of the introduction, early distribution and spread of the two Senna taxa around the world is largely unknown. In Australia S. tora was first recorded in 1871 but the earliest collection was made at Port Darwin (Northern Territory) in 1888. It escaped from green manure trial plots in Queensland in 1917-18 and is now only sparingly naturalised. S. obtusifolia was first recorded as a weed in the Northern Territory in 1961 and from Queensland in 1963, but is thought to have been introduced to Australia in the early 1940s around Darwin. It was declared a noxious plant in Queensland under the Rural Lands Protection Act in 1981 (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992; Mackey et al., 1997). In Hawaii, S. obtusifolia was thought to have been naturalised since at least the 1960s but the recent discovery of a 1940 herbarium specimen points at a pre-World War 2 introduction (Staples et al., 2003).

Habitat

Top of page S. obtusifolia and S. tora are found in cropped land, pastures, roadsides, waste land, woodland and natural grasslands. They can grow in a range of soil types, including heavy-textured and well aerated or sandy soils. They grow at an optimum temperature of 25°C and in areas with annual precipitation ranging from 640 mm to 4290 mm, with an optimum of 1520 mm (Holm et al., 1997). While growth is best in moist conditions, there is good tolerance of dry soils (Hoveland and Buchanan, 1973). Good growth is sustained with a soil pH of between 4.6 and 7.9 (Murray et al., 1976).

Habitat List

Top of page

Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
	Terrestrial – Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
		Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

Top of page S. obtusifolia and S. tora are weeds of a wide range of crops including: cereals, fibre crops (cotton and jute), legumes (especially soyabean), pastures, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, tobacco, tree crops (citrus, coconut, rubber, etc.) and vegetables. Most crops are likely to be infested when grown within the habitat range of these weeds.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Top of page

Biology and Ecology

Top of page Genetics

In the New World there are two forms of S. obtusifolia. The first originating from the Caribbean and also found in the USA has a uniglandular extra-floral nectary on the upper surface of the rachis (and 2n=28) and the other from northern South America has two extra-floral nectaries (and 2n=26) (Irwin and Barneby, 1982). In Paraguay both chromosome numbers (2n=26 and 2n=28) have been reported (Anon., unda). Senna obtusifolia and S. tora are caryologically distinct even though both have n=13 but some forms of obtusifolia have n=12, 13, 14 and some Indian forms of tora have n=13, 14. It has been suggested that S. tora derived from the Caribbean form of S. obtusifolia and could have arisen via aneuploid loss from obtusifolia (Randell, 1995; Mackey et al., 1997). There is also some evidence that a cold-tolerant biotype may be evolving and this would further increase the potential range of the weed (Mackey et al., 1997).

Physiology and phenology

Germination can occur between 13 and 40°C (Misra, 1969) and at any time of the year provided moisture is available (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). Seedlings can emerge from a soil depth of 12.7 cm but not from 15 cm (Teem et al., 1980). Emergence from 12.7 cm takes 9 days but 63% emergence takes place within 3 days when seeds are only 2.5 cm deep. Seedling growth is best between 30 to 36°C (Teem et al., 1980). In Australia, seedling growth is slow in early spring but increases rapidly at temperatures over 24°C, primary root growth is optimum at 32°C (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). Holm et al. (1997) state that optimum root growth occurs at 25°C.

Intraspecific competition increases plant height, whilst branching decreases as plant density rises from 1 to 40 plants/m² (Singh, 1969). Photoperiod dramatically affects growth. In India, as the photoperiod increased from 6 to 15 hours plants grew taller. Continuous light, however, results in short plants (Misra, 1969). Turner and Karlander (1975) found that 6-12 hours of light induces 100% flowering and pods are only produced when plants receive between 8 and 11 hours of light (Misra, 1969). Photoperiod responses may vary around the world but it appears that S. tora and S. obtusifolia are short-day plants. Retzinger (1983) recorded seed production of 2800 to 8200 seeds/plant resulting in an enormous seed bank in the soil.

Flowers first appear after 43-84 days depending on ecotype and climate. Being a short-day plant, short photoperiods accelerate reproductive development and 16 h light prevents flowering. Short days are not only necessary for flower induction but also for bud development (Mackey et al., 1997).

Reproductive biology

Pollen is released through the vibration of the flowers by bees (buzz pollination) and it is thought that self-pollination is probably the norm. The dehiscent pod can disperse seeds up to 5 m. Further dispersal can occur via water or in mud attached to the feet or fur of animals, or to shoes and machinery. When ingested by cattle, horse or goats it may survive the passage of the gut (Mackey et al., 1997).

Seeds of S. tora and S. obtusifolia have hard seed coats which need to be mechanically damaged to break dormancy. In dry storage, seeds lose their viability quite rapidly (Doll et al., 1976); seeds stored for three years had an overall germination of 22%. Nine-year-old seed had 9% germination (Ewart, 1908) and 10% of seed buried in the soil for 30 months germinated (Egley and Chandler, 1978). Baskin et al. (1998) report that 90% of seeds are green, hard-coated and dormant while 10% are brown and non-dormant. After scarification, dry heat at 80-100°C, or alternating temperatures, the green seeds would germinate in either light or dark conditions. Seeds are readily scarified by fire (Mackey et al., 1997).

Ecology

In Minas Gerais, Brazil, S. obtusifolia is commonly found in early succession following fire in secondary forest, but does not become dominant (Martins et al., 2002), and is an important woody plant component of Roraima Savannahs (Miranda et al., 2002). In northern Australia S. obtusifolia abundance is positively correlated with buffalo activity (Braithwaite et al., 1984).

Environmental Requirements

S. obtusifolia can grow in a wide range of soil types. It also tolerates much variation in soil pH and nutrients. Plant growth can be affected by soil phosphorus and potassium, for instance, low soil potassium concentrations result in stunted growth. In North America extreme temperatures limit the range of the plant, whereas in Australia it is thought to be limited by soil moisture availability and dry stress. Disturbance, either through logging and road construction or from feral animals (cattle and pigs) and storms, increases open forest and woodland susceptibility to invasion (Mackey et al., 1997).

Seeds germinate between 18 and 36°C and seedling growth occurs at the temperature range of 18-39°C, but the threshold for leaf production is around 13°C (Mackey et al., 1997).

Rainfall

Top of page

Rainfall Regime

Top of page Summer
Uniform
Winter

Soil Tolerances

Top of page

Soil drainage

• free

Soil reaction

• acid
• neutral

Soil texture

• heavy
• light
• medium

Natural enemies

Top of page

Notes on Natural Enemies

Top of page In view of the very close taxonomic affinities of S. tora and S. obtusifolia, the natural enemies of these two species will be interchangeable (Cock and Evans, 1984). The principal records of natural enemies found in the literature for S. tora and S. obtusifolia refer to the Bruchidae (Coleoptera), a relatively small family, consisting mostly of oligophagous seed feeding beetles, most of which specialize on the Leguminosae (Cock and Evans, 1984). Recent work carried to identify potential biocontrol agents has resulted in the production of a substantial list of insects associated with S. obtusifolia (Palmer and Pullen, 2001). Investigations on the impact of the introduced ant Pheidole megacephala in Australia's Northern Territory has shown that the ants tend S. obtusifolia extrafloral nectaries and indicated that the ants facilitated the invasion. Plants growing in uninfested areas suffered from clear signs of insect herbivory and the plants were small and isolated. In contrast, in areas infested by the introduced ants the individuals were larger, often in dense stands, and suffered from no or limited leaf damage (Hoffmann et al., 1999).

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Top of page Natural dispersal

S. obtusifolia is spread via the gut of domestic livestock and by motor vehicles (Neldner et al., 1997).

Agricultural practices

In Australia's Queensland S. obtusifolia escaped from green manure trial plots (Neldner et al., 1997).

Pathway Vectors

Top of page

Plant Trade

Top of page

Impact Summary

Top of page

Impact

Top of page In Georgia, USA, S. obtusifolia was identified as the most troublesome weed statewide averaged over all crops. It was present in all crops surveyed and across the State's climate gradient (Webster and Macdonald, 2001). If S. tora and S. obtusifolia are left uncontrolled for 2-4 weeks after planting, crop yields are dramatically reduced (Holm et al., 1997). Cotton yields were reduced by 25% when this weed was present at a density of 1.1 plants/m of row (Buchanan and Burns, 1971) and each plant per 15 m of row reduced cotton yield by 40 kg/ha (Buchanan et al., 1980). Murray et al. (1976) concluded that 1, 2 and 3 plants/0.3 m of row reduced yields of cotton by 11, 23 and 46%, respectively. Soyabean yields were reduced by 92 kg/ha for each S. obtusifolia plant/m of row (Thurlow and Buchanan, 1972). Seeds of S. tora were found to be one of the commonest contaminants of leguminous cover crop seeds imported into Malaysia (Tasrif et al., 1991). In Australian sugarcane growing regions where sicklepod is becoming an increasing problem, costs to chemically control the pest are readily increasing. Dense infestations of S. obtusifolia in Queensland can reduce the cattle carrying capacity up to nearly 100%. It is also a problem in young forestry plantation where expensive spraying programmes have to be carried out. In Australia it was estimated that in 1997 S. obtusifolia control cost around $1 million per year (Mackey et al., 1997).

S. tora or S. obtusifolia is an alternative host for the pests Etiella zinckenella in India (Subba Rao et al., 1976) and Aphis craccivora in India (Patel and Patel, 1972) and Uganda (Davies, 1972). In Venezuela, S. obtusifolia is a reservoir for Tobacco mosaic virus which is spread by Myzus persicae (Debrot, 1974). It is also a source of Colletotrichum capsici which causes anthracnose on tomato fruit and cotton seedlings (McLean and Roy, 1991) and of S. fragariae which causes anthracnose on strawberries (Howard and Albregts, 1973). Although the plant is not palatable, cattle may occasionally eat it when little other forage is available and poisoning may result (Mackey et al., 1997).

Cattle will not feed on the growing plant of S. obtusifolia, although they will eat it in silage and also the dry seed pods (Cock and Evans, 1984). Seeds of S. obtusifolia are harmful to chickens due to the presence of a trypsin inhibitor, but this is inactivated by boiling, which converts the seeds into a good source of protein (Cock and Evans, 1984).

In Benin farmers have reported S. obtusifolia as alternative host of cowpea pests (Kossou et al., 2001).

Environmental Impact

Top of page It is the most serious invasive plant of the Cape York Peninsula grassland where it colonised and displaced large areas of Imperata cylindrica grasslands (Neldner et al., 1997). In the biodiversity important islands of the Galapagos, S. obtusifolia is suspected to be causing significant ecological change (Tye et al., 2002). In northern Australia the spread of the species is thought to increase the risk of rain forest degradation by wild fires during the dry season (Russell-Smith and Bowman, 1992).

Impact: Biodiversity

Top of page In both Australia and the Galapagos S. obtusifolia is spreading in protected areas (Hoffmann et al., 1999; Tye et al., 2002), but the impact of the plant on biodiversity and ecosystem function is largely unknown, but for its ability to displace native species (Mackey et al., 1997).

Social Impact

Top of page In Australia no beneficial effects have been identified, whereas in parts of Africa and Asia both taxa are used in traditional medicine (Mackey et al., 1997). As S. obtusifolia often produces dense and tall monotypic stands, it is likely to hinder human movement in infested areas. In Australia's Iron Range National Park it is feared that if S. obtusifolia infestations increase markedly, the number of visitations may decrease (Mackey et al., 1997).

Risk and Impact Factors

Top of page Invasiveness

• Proved invasive outside its native range
• Highly adaptable to different environments
• Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
• Highly mobile locally
• Has high reproductive potential
• Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

• Damaged ecosystem services
• Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
• Negatively impacts agriculture
• Negatively impacts animal health
• Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

• Competition - monopolizing resources
• Pest and disease transmission
• Produces spines, thorns or burrs

Likelihood of entry/control

• Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
• Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
• Difficult to identify/detect in the field
• Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Top of page Fermented leaves of S. obtusifolia are used as a meat substitute in Sudan (Dirar, 1984) and as a mineral and vitamin supplement by certain tribes in Kenya and Senegal (Becker, 1986). Leaves of S. tora and S. obtusifolia are high in protein (14.4%) and are highly palatable to poultry (Murty, 1962) but excessive consumption can be detrimental. Modest quantities of S. tora and S. obtusifolia seeds can be used as dietary supplements in livestock but too much can have adverse effects (Holm et al., 1997). Seeds can be used as a substitute for coffee and as a mordant in dyeing (Ambasta, 1986; Staples et al., 2003; DeFilipps et al., 2004). 'Kawal' meat substitutes can be made from S. obtusifolia leaves (Dirar, 1984).

S. tora and S. obtusifolia are reported to have a number of medicinal uses, indeed, S. tora is reputed to have been used for medicinal purposes as early as 4000 BC (Nickell, 1960). The whole plant, especially the root, has purgative (Ambasta, 1986) and antihelminthic properties and the leaves are used to treat ringworm (Ambasta, 1986) and other skin diseases (Cock and Evans, 1984). Quisumbing (1951) records that S. tora is used as a vermifuge and purgative in the Philippines and to treat dysentery and opthalmia in Indo-China. In French Guiana root tincture is rubbed on rheumatic areas and the leaf infusion is effective for renal calculi (DeFilipps et al., 2004).

Uses List

Top of page

Animal feed, fodder, forage

• Fodder/animal feed

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

• Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Top of page There were over 600 species of Cassia before the division of Irwin and Barneby (1982), of which S. occidentalis somewhat resembles S. tora and S. obtusifolia in morphology, distribution, ecology and biology. However, S. occidentalis is normally perennial, and the leaves differ in having 4 to 6 pairs of leaflets (only 3 in S. tora and S. obtusifolia) and the leaflets are ovate or oblong-lanceolate, with a pointed tip (unlike the blunt or rounded tips of S. tora and S. obtusifolia).

Prevention and Control

Top of page

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Control of S. tora and S. obtusifolia is difficult and can be obtained only with a sustained combination of all available methods. Although repeated discing of summer fallows favours germination and emergence, and tends to reduce seed numbers in the soil (Bridges and Walker, 1985), cultivation usually spreads rather than controls these weeds. Hence, single plants should be grubbed out before flowering. Hand pulling is difficult because of the deep, curved taproot, and plants can regrow from underground buds in the crown region (Holm et al., 1997). Larger colonies can be slashed but this does not eliminate S. tora and S. obtusifolia. Slashing reduces plant vigour which, with a programme of top dressing and restricted grazing, enables re-establishment of native pastures (Parson and Cuthbertson, 1992). As shading severely limits S. obtusifolia growth, late emerging seedlings can be somewhat suppressed by young soyabean if the rows are narrow enough for rapid canopy closure (Nice et al., 2001).

Zero-tillage land management can lead to increased seed populations compared with conventionally tilled plots (Vencill and Banks, 1994).

Various mulching treatments can be used to control S. tora and S. obtusifolia: rye mulch is effective in sunflower and soyabeans (Brecke and Schilling, 1996), giving up to 90% early control (Worsham, 1991). Polypropylene fabric mats completely inhibit the growth of S. obtusifolia when placed over glasshouse flats (Martin et al., 1987). Browne et al. (1989) have demonstrated the potential for controlling S. obtusifolia by soil solarization with clear plastic but they concede that this may only be economical for domestic gardens and small areas of horticultural crops.

Competitive crops offer possibilities for suppressing the growth of S. tora and S. obtusifolia, for example, Shaw et al. (1997) compared different soyabean cultivars and found that cultivar 9592 Pioneer was more effective in reducing shoot height than Asgrow 5979 when no herbicide treatment was used

In regions where S. obtusifolia is still spreading, such as northern Australia, it has been suggested that closing or relocating roads and restricting the movement of cattle to uninvaded areas are measures that may limit range expansion (Neldner et al., 1997).

Biological Control

S. obtusifolia has been a target weed for biological control, particularly in the USA. Alternaria cassiae, formulated as a mycoherbicide, has given >96% control of S. obtusifolia and increased the yields of soyabean (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). Granular formulations of A. cassiae mycelia with sodium alginate + kaolin, applied pre-emergence (using approximately 3 kg conidia/500 kg formulation), gave 50% control of S. obtusifolia in soyabeans within 14 days and significantly increased crop yield (Walker, 1983). In greenhouse trials, an inoculum concentration of 10,000 spores/ml of A. cassiae gave 100% control of S. obtusifolia (Boyette and Walker, 1985). Another species, Alternaria alternata, infecting S. obtusifolia has been discovered widening the range of suitable pathogens to be evaluated to control the species using bioherbicides (Mello et al., 2001). A strain of Fusarium oxysporum isolated from S. obtusifolia has potential as a mycoherbicide (Boyette et al., 1993). Pseudocercospora nigricans has also been identified as a potential biological control agent (Hofmeister and Charudattan, 1987). In a review of possibilities for the biological control of S. tora and S. obtusifolia, Cock and Evans (1984) suggested that the bruchid Sennius instabilis, which attacks S. obtusifolia in tropical America, should be considered for introduction against S. tora in the Old World, and that three fungi (Pseudocercospora nigricans, Pseudoperonospora cassiae and Ravenelia berkeleyii) should be evaluated for possible use as mycoherbicides or classical biological control agents.

Walker and Tilley (1997) identified Myrothecium verrucaria as a potential mycoherbicide agent although it does affect a number of plant species including some economically important crops. Müller-Schärer et al. (2000) have reported that early results indicated that a multiple-pathogen strategy consisting of four pathogens applied in a single, post-emergence spray was feasible without loss of efficacy or host specificity. Following a survey of the phytophagous arthropod fauna in Central America, two species, Mitrapsylla albalineata (Homoptera: Psyllidae) and Conotrachelus sp. 'Morelos' (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), have been brought to Australia for further investigations as potential biocontrol agents (Palmer and Pullen, 2001).

Chemical Control

Herbicides that give control of S. tora and S. obtusifolia, either alone or in mixtures with other products include: 2,4-D amine (rice); 2,4-DB (groundnuts, soyabean); acifluorfen (groundnuts, mung bean, soyabean); atrazine (maize, sorghum); butylate (maize); chlorimuron (soyabean); chloroxuron (carrots, onions, soyabean); clopyralid (barley, oats, wheat); dicamba (maize); dichlorprop (cereals); diuron (cotton, oats, soyabean); EPTC (castor, citrus, flax, maize, Phaseolus beans, potato, sorghum, sugar beet, sunflower, sweet potato); flumetsulam (soyabean); fluometuron (cotton); fluridone (cotton); glufosinate (soyabean); glyphosate and glyphosate trimesium (land preparation, minimum tillage, tree crops, vines); imazaquin (groundnut, soyabean); linuron (cotton, potato, soyabean); metribuzin (soyabean); MSMA (cotton); norflurazon (cotton); oxyfluorfen (cotton); pendimethalin (soyabean); picloram (grassland); primisulfuron (maize); prometryn (cotton); pyridate (groundnuts); and vernolate (groundnuts) (Anon., 1998).

Hicks et al. (1998) show that a mixture of pyridate and 2,4-DB acts synergistically on S. obtusifolia without increased damage to groundnut. S. obtusifolia occurs in flushes, seedlings emerge after rainfall events, and few herbicides, including etribuzin, imazaquin, chlorimuron, flumetsulam, and glyphosate, provide adequate control and their efficacy can depend heavily on environmental conditions (Buehring et al., 2002).

References

Top of page

ACTA, 1986a. Cassia obtusifolia L. In: Adventices Tropicales [Tropical Weeds]. Paris, France: ACTA-Publications

ACTA, 1986b. Cassia tora L. In: Adventices Tropicales [Tropical Weeds]. Paris, France: ACTA-Publications

Ambasta SSP (ed.), 1986. The Useful Plants of India. New Delhi, India: Publications and Information Directorate, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Anon, unda. Recuentos cromosómicos del Paraguay. www.ub.es/botanica/cromopar/cro-in.pdf

Anon., 1998. Weed Control Manual, 31. Willoughby, Ohio, USA: Meister Publishing Company.

Barnes DE, Chan LG, 1990. Common Weeds of Malaysia and their Control. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ancom Berhad Persiaran Selangor

Baskin JM, Nan XiaoYing, Baskin CC, 1998. A comparative study of seed dormancy and germination in an annual and a perennial species of Senna (Fabaceae). Seed Science Research, 8(4):501-512; 59 ref

Becker B, 1986. Wild plants for human nutrition in the Sahelian Zone. Journal of Arid Environments, 11(1):61-64; 2 ref

Bentham G, 1871. Revision of the genus Cassia. Transactions of the Linnaean Society, London, 27:503-591

Berhaut, J, 1967. Flore du Sénégal. Dakar, Sénégal: Clairafrique

Boyette CD, Abbas HK, Connick WJJr, 1993. Evaluation of Fusarium oxysporum as a potential bioherbicide for sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia), coffee senna (C. occidentalis), and hemp sesbania (Sesbania exaltata). Weed Science, 41(4):678-681; 14 ref

Boyette CD, Walker HL, 1985. Biological control of three leguminous weed species with Alternaria cassiae. Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 38th Annual Meeting, Houston, Texas, USA, 374

Braithwaite RW, Dudzinski ML, Ridpath MG, Parker BS, 1984. The impact of water buffalo on the monsoon forest ecosystem in Kakadu National Park. Australian Journal of Ecology, 9(4):309-322; [ORS]; 46 ref

Brecke BJ, Shilling DG, 1996. Effect of crop species, tillage, and rye (Secale cereale) mulch on sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia). Weed Science, 44(1):133-136; 27 ref

Brenan JPM, 1967. Leguminosae subfamily Caesalpinioideae. In: Milne-Redhead E, Polhill RM, eds. Flora of Tropical East Africa. London, UK: Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administrations

Bridges DC, Walker RH, 1985. Influence of weed management and cropping systems on sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia) seed in the soil. Weed Science, 33(6):800-804

Brown JE, Patterson MG, Caldwell MC, 1989. Soil solarization/chicken manure possible alternative weed control. Highlights of Agricultural Research, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, 36(2):16

Buchanan GA, Burns E, 1971. Weed competition in cotton: I Sicklepod and tall morningglory. Weed Science, 19:576-579

Buchanan GA, Crowley RH, Street JE, McGuire JA, 1980. Competition of sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia) and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus) with cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Weed Science, 28(3):258-262

Buehring NW, Nice GRW, Shaw DR, 2002. Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia) control and soybean (Glycine max) response to soybean row spacing and population in three weed management systems. Weed Technology, 16(1):131-141; 30 ref

Cock MJW, Evans HC, 1984. Possibilities for biological control of Cassia tora and C. obtusifolia. Tropical Pest Management, 30(4):339-350

Davies JC, 1972. Studies on the ecology of Aphis craccivora Koch (Aphididae), the vector of rosette disease of groundnuts, in Uganda. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 62:169-181

Debrot CEA, 1974. Casia tora L. huesped natural del virus del grabado del tabaco (tobacco etch virus) en Venezuela. Agronomia Tropical, 24:21-26

DeFilipps RA, Maina SL, Crepin J, 2004. Medicinal Plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/medicinal

Department of Agronomy, 1968. Weeds found in cultivated land in Taiwan, Volume 2. Taipei, Taiwan: College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University

Dirar HA, 1984. Kawal, meat substitute from fermented Cassia obtusifolia leaves. Economic Botany, 38(3):342-349; 10 ref

Doll J, Piedrahita W, Argel P, 1976. Capacidad germinativa de semilla de 32 especies de malezas. Revista COMALFI (Sociedad Colombiana de Malezas y Fisologia Vegetal), 3:82-93

Douro Kpindou OK, Lomer CJ, Langewald J, Togo T, Sagara D, 2001. Effect of the application of a mixture of lamda-cyhalothrin (chemical pesticide) and spores of Metarhizium anisopliae (flavoviride) var. acridum Driver and Milner (biopesticide) applied to larvae of grasshoppers in Mali. Journal of Applied Entomology, 125(5):249-253; 18 ref

Egley GH, Chandler JM, 1978. Germination and viability of weed seeds after 2.5 years in a 50-year buried seed study. Weed Science, 26(3):230-239

Ewart A, 1908. On the longevity of seeds. Proceedings of the Royal Society Victoria, 21:1-210

Fosberg FR, Sachet M-H, Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian Dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:1-295

Fournet J, Hammerton JL, 1991. Weeds of the Lesser Antilles. Paris, France: Department d'Economie et Sociologie Rurales, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique

Gonzalez G, Webb ME, 1989. Manual para la Identificacion y Control de Malezas. Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical

Haines HH, 1922. The botany of Bihar and Orissa. London, UK: Allard and Sons

Henty EE, Pritchard GH, 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their Control. Lp, Papua New Guinea: Department of Forests, Division of Botany, Botany Bulletin No.7

Hicks TV, Wehtje GR, Grey TL, 1998. The interaction of pyridate and 2,4-DB in peanut (Arachis hypogaea), florida beggarweed (Desmodium tortuosum), and sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia). Weed Science, 46(3):284-288; 12 ref

Hoffmann BD, Andersen AN, Hill GJE, 1999. Impact of an introduced ant on native rain forest invertebrates: Pheidole megacephala in monsoonal Australia. Oecologia (Berlin), 120:595-604

Hofmeister FM, Charudattan R, 1987. Pseudocercospora nigricans, a pathogen of sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia) with biocontrol potential. Plant Disease, 71(1):44-46

Holm L, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho J, Herberger J, 1997. World Weeds. Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 391 pp

Hoveland CS, Buchanan GA, 1973. Weed seed germination under simulated drought. Weed Science, 21(4):322-324

Howard CM, Albregts EE, 1973. Cassia obtusifolia, a possible reservoir for inoculum of Colletrotrichum fragariae. Phytopathology, 63(4):533-534

Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, 1958. Flora of West Tropical Africa, Vol. 1. Part 2, 2nd edition. London, UK: Crown Agents

Irwin HS, Barneby RC, 1982. The American Cassiinae. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 25:1-918

Irwin HS, Turner BL, 1960. Chromosomal relationships and taxonomic considerations in the genus Cassia. American Journal of Botany, 47:309-318

Joel DM, Liston A, 1986. New adventive weeds in Israel. Israel Journal of Botany, 35(3-4):215-223

Kene DR, Pathey MK, Thakare KK, 1988. Analysis of proximate principles of common weeds growing in Vidarbha and their influence on soil pH, humus content and water stable aggregates on addition to soil. PKV Research Journal, 12(1):26-30

Kossou DK, Gbehounou G, Ahanchede A, Ahohuendo B, Bouraima Y, Huis A van, 2001. Indigenous cowpea production and protection practices in Benin. Insect Science and its Application, 21(2):123-132; 26 ref

Linnaeus C, 1753. Species Plantarum edition 1. Stockholm, Sweden

Lorenzi H, 1982. Weeds of Brazil, terrestrial and aquatic, parasitic, poisonous and medicinal. (Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais.) Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi, 425 pp

Lorenzi HJ, Jeffery LS(Editors), 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. New York, USA; Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., 355 pp

Mackey AP, Miller EN, Palmer WA, 1997. Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia) in Queensland. Coorparoo, Australia: Department of Natural Resources

Mahmood TZ, 1987. Crop Weeds of Rawalpindi - Islamabad Area. Islamabad, Pakistan: National Agricultural Research Centre, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council

Martin CA, Ponder HG, Gilliam CH, 1987. Ability of polypropylene fabric to inhibit the growth of six weed species. Research Report Series, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, No.5:25-26

Martin J, 1990. Herbicide trials in North Cameroon: recent results and development prospects. Coton et Fibres Tropicales, 45(4):309-321

Martins SV, Ribeiro GA, da Silva WM, Nappo ME, 2002. Regeneração pós-fogo em um fragmento de floresta estacional semidecidual no Município de Viçosa, MG. Ciência Florestal, 12:11-19

McLean KS, Roy KW, 1991. Weeds as a source of Colletotrichum capsici causing anthracnose on tomato fruit and cotton seedlings. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 13(2):131-134

McWilliam A, 2000. A plague on your house? Some impacts of Chromolaena odorata on Timorese livelihoods. Human Ecology, 28(3):451-469; 29 ref

Mello SCM, Ribeiro ZMA, Sousa GR, Tigano M, Nachtigal Gde F, Fontes EMG, 2001. Isoenzyme patterns and morphology of isolates of Alternaria species pathogenic to Senna obtusifolia. Fitopatologia Brasileira, 26(3):667-669; 11 ref

Minh-Si H, 1969. Weeds in South Vietnam. Saigon, Vietnam: Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Land Reform and Development of Agriculture and Fisheries

Miranda IS, Absy ML, Rebêlo GH, 2002. Community structure of woody plants of Roraima Savannahs, Brazil. Plant Ecolology, 164:109-123

Moody K, Munroe CE, Lubiga RT, Paller EC, 1984. Major Weeds of the Philippines. Los Banos, Philippines: Weed Science Society of the Philippines, University of the Philippines at Los Banos

Murray DS, Thurlow DL, Buchanan GA, 1976. Sicklepod in the Southeast. Weeds Today, 7:12-14

Murty V, 1962. Cassia tora L. leaf meal as a component of poultry rations. Poultry Science, 41:1026-1028

Müller-Schärer H, Scheepens PC, Greaves MP, 2000. Biological control of weeds in European crops: recent achievements and future work. Weed Research Oxford, 40(1): 83-98

Neldner VJ, Fensham RJ, Clarkson JR, Stanton JP, 1997. The natural grasslands of Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Description, distribution and conservation status. Biological Conservation, 81(1/2):121-136; 53 ref

Nice GRW, Buehring NW, Shaw DR, 2001. Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia) response to shading, soybean (Glycine max) row spacing, and population in three management systems. Weed Technology, 15(1):155-162; 28 ref

Nickell LG, 1960. Antimicrobial activity of vascular plants. Economic Botany, 13:281-318

Ouren T, 1987. Soyabean adventitious weeds in Norway. Blyttia, 45(4):175-185

Palmer WA, Pullen KR, 2001. The phytophagous arthropods associated with Senna obtusifolia (Caesalpiniaceae) in Mexico and Honduras and their prospects for utilization for biological control. Biological Control, 20(1):76-83; 23 ref

Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp

Parsons WT, Cuthbertson EG, 1992. Noxious Weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press, 692 pp

Patel RM, Patel CB, 1972. Factors contributing to the carryover of groundnut aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) through the off-season in Gujurat. Indian Journal of Entomology, 33:404-410

Quisumbing E, 1951. Medicinal plants of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Philippine Islands Technical Bulletin, 16:1-1234

Randall JM, 1997. Weed Alert! New Invasive Weeds in California. California Exotic Pest Plant Council 1997 Symposium Proceedings. http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/freeform/ceppc/documents/1997_Symposium_Proceedings1946.PDF

Randell BR, 1988. Revision of the Cassiinae in Australia. I. Senn sect. Chamaefistula. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Garden, 11:19-49

Randell BR, 1995. Taxonomy and evolution of Senna obtusifolia and S. tora. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 16:55-58

Recasens J, Conesa JA, 1995. New adventitious weeds in the irrigated crops of Catalonia. Proceedings of the 1995 Congress of the Spanish Weed Science Society, Huesca, Spain. Madrid, Spain: Sociedad Espanola de Malherbologia, 59-65

Research Division, undated. Weeds of the Solomon Islands and their Control. Honiara, Solomon Islands: Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands

Retzinger EJ Jr, 1983. Growth and development of sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia L.) biotypes. Abstracts, 1983 Meeting of the Weed Science Society of America, 60

Robertson, SA, 1989. Flowering Plants of Seychelles. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens

Russell-Smith J, Bowman DMJS, 1992. Conservation of monsoon rainforest isolates in the Northern Territory, Australia. Biological Conservation, 59(1):51-63

Sauerborn E, Sauerborn J, 1984. Plants of cropland in Western Samoa with special reference to taro. Plits, 2(4):1-331

Shaw DR, Rankins AJr, Ruscoe JT, 1997. Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia) interference with soybean (Glycine max) cultivars following herbicide treatments. Weed Technology, 11(3):510-514; 30 ref

Singh J, 1969. Growth performance and dry matter yield of Cassia tora L. as influenced by population density. Journal of the Indian Botanical Society, 48:141-148

Singh KK, Mishra LC, 1988. Reduction in chlorophyll and energy contents in plants as indicators of atmospheric pollution. Photosynthetica, 22(1):129-132

Staples GW, Imada CT, Herbst DR, 2003. New Hawaiian plant records for 2001. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 74:7-21

Subba Rao PV, Rangarajan AV, Azeez Basha A, 1974. Record of new host plants for some important crop pests in Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Entomology, 36(3):227-228

Swarbrick JT, 1989. Major weeds of the tropical South Pacific. Proceedings, 12th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference, Seoul, Korea Republic. Taipei, Taiwan: Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society, No. 1:21-30

Tasrif A, Sahid IB, Sastroutomo SS, Latiff A, 1991. Purity study of imported leguminous cover crops. Plant Protection Quarterly, 6(4):190-193

Teem DH, Hoveland CS, Buchanan GA, 1980. Sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia) and coffee senna (Cassia occidentalis); geographic distribution, germination and emergence. Weed Science, 28(1):68-71

Terry PJ, 1981. Weeds and their control in the Gambia. Tropical Pest Management, 27(1):44-52

Thulin M, 1989. Fabaceae. In: Hedberg I, Edwards S, eds. Flora of Ethiopia, Volume 3. Pittosporaceae to Araliaceae. Addis Abbaba, Ethiopia/Uppsala University, Sweden: National Herbarium, 97-251

Thurlow DL, Buchanan GA, 1972. Competition of sicklepod with soybeans. Weed Science, 20(4):379-384

Turner BC, Karlander EP, 1975. Photoperiodic control of floral initiation in sicklepod (Cassia obtusifolia L.). Botanical Gazette, 136(1):1-4

Tye A, Soria MC, Gardener MR, 2003. A strategy for Galapagos weeds. In: Veitch CR, Clout MN, eds. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species. Proceedings of the International Conference on eradication of island invasives. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN - The World Conservation Union, 336-341

Upadhyaya SK, Singh V, 1986. Phytochemical evaluation of Cassia obtusifolia L. and Cassia tora L. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Plant Sciences, 96(4):321-326

Vencill WK, Banks PA, 1994. Effects of tillage systems and weed management on weed populations in grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Weed Science, 42(4):541-547

Vernon R, unda. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Department of Agriculture Chilanga Zambia, 151pp

Vos P, 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean. 2. The Comoros Archipelago (Union of the Comoros and Mayotte). Forest Health & Biodiversity Working Papers FBS/4-2E. Rome, Italy: FAO

Walker HL, 1983. Biocontrol of sicklepod with Alternaria cassip. Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 36th annual meeting, 139

Walker HL, Tilley AM, 1997. Evaluation of an isolate of Myrothecium verrucaria from sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia) as a potential mycoherbicide agent. Biological Control, 10(2):104-112; 32 ref

Waterhouse DF, 1993. The Major Arthropod Pests and Weeds of Agriculture in Southeast Asia. ACIAR Monograph No. 21. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 141 pp

Weakley AS, undated. Flora of the Carolinas and Virginia. http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/weakley_flora

Webster TM, MacDonald GE, 2001. A survey of weeds in various crops in Georgia. Weed Technology, 15(4):771-790; 28 ref

Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute

Whistler WA, 1983. Weed handbook of Western Polynesia. Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft fnr Technische Zusammenarbeit, 157 pp

Wit HCD de, 1955. A revision of the genus Cassia as occurring in Malaysia. Webbia, 11:197-292

Witt, A., Luke, Q., 2017. Guide to the naturalized and invasive plants of Eastern Africa, [ed. by Witt, A., Luke, Q.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI.vi + 601 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158959 doi:10.1079/9781786392145.0000

Worsham AD, 1991. Allelopathic cover crops to reduce herbicide input. Proceedings of the 44th Annual Meeting of the Southern Weed Science Society Champaign, Illinois, USA; Southern Weed Science Society, 58-69

Distribution References

Anon, 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. [ed. by Lorenzi H J, Jeffery L S]. New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd. 355 pp.

Barnes DE, Chan LG, 1990. Common Weeds of Malaysia and their Control., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ancom Berhad Persiaran Selangor.

Brenan JPM, 1967. Leguminosae subfamily Caesalpinioideae. In: Flora of Tropical East Africa, [ed. by Milne-Redhead E, Polhill RM]. London, UK: Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administrations.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Cock M J W, Evans H C, 1984. Possibilities for biological control of Cassia tora and C. obtusifolia. Tropical Pest Management. 30 (4), 339-350.

DeFilipps RA, Maina SL, Crepin J, 2004. Medicinal Plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana)., http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/medicinal

Department of Agronomy, 1968. Weeds found in cultivated land in Taiwan., 2 Taipei, Taiwan: College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University.

Fosberg F R, Sachet M H, Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica. 1-295.

Fournet J, Hammerton J L, 1991. Mauvaises Herbes des Petites Antilles. Paris, France: Département d'Économie et Sociologie Rurales, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique. 214 pp.

Gonzalez G, Webb ME, 1989. (Manual para la Identificacion y Control de Malezas)., Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical.

Henty E E, Pritchard G H, 1975. Weeds of New Guinea and their control. In: Weeds of New Guinea and their control. Lae, Papua New. Guinea: 180 pp.

Holm L, Pancho J V, Herberger J P, Plucknett D L, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, Chichester (), Brisbane, Toronto, UK: John Wiley and Sons. xlix + 391 pp.

Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, 1958. Flora of West Tropical Africa., 1 (2nd) London, UK: Crown Agents.

IRWIN H S, TURNER B L, 1960. Chromosomal relationships and taxonomic considerations in the genus Cassia. American Journal of Botany. 309-18. DOI:10.2307/2439612

Joel D M, Liston A, 1986. New adventive weeds in Israel. Israel Journal of Botany. 35 (3-4), 215-223.

Kene D R, Pathey M K, Thakare K K, 1988. Analysis of proximate principles of common weeds growing in Vidarbha and their influence on soil pH, humus content and water stable aggregates on addition to soil. PKV Research Journal. 12 (1), 26-30.

Lorenzi H, 1982. Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais. Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi. 425 pp.

Mackey AP, Miller EN, Palmer WA, 1997. Sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia) in Queensland., Coorparoo, Australia: Department of Natural Resources.

Mahmood TZ, 1987. Crop Weeds of Rawalpindi - Islamabad Area., Islamabad, Pakistan: National Agricultural Research Centre, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council.

Martin J, 1990. Herbicide trials in North Cameroon: recent results and development prospects. (L'expérimentation de produits herbicides au Nord Cameroun: résultats récents et perspectives de développement.). Coton et Fibres Tropicales. 45 (4), 309-321.

Martins SV, Ribeiro GA, da Silva WM, Nappo ME, 2002. (Regeneração pós-fogo em um fragmento de floresta estacional semidecidual no Município de Viçosa, MG). In: Ciência Florestal, 12 11-19.

McWilliam A, 2000. A plague on your house? Some impacts of Chromolaena odorata on Timorese livelihoods. Human Ecology. 28 (3), 451-469. DOI:10.1023/A:1007061632588

Minh-Si H, 1969. Weeds in South Vietnam., Saigon, Vietnam: Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Land Reform and Development of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Miranda IS, Absy ML, Rebêlo GH, 2002. Community structure of woody plants of Roraima Savannahs, Brazil. In: Plant Ecolology, 164 109-123.

Moody K, Munroe CE, Lubiga RT, Paller EC, 1984. Major Weeds of the Philippines., Los Banos, Philippines: Weed Science Society of the Philippines, University of the Philippines at Los Banos.

Ouren T, 1987. Soyabean adventitious weeds in Norway. (Soyabønne-adventiver i Norge.). Blyttia. 45 (4), 175-185.

Palmer W A, Pullen K R, 2001. The phytophagous arthropods associated with Senna obtusifolia (Caesalpiniaceae) in Mexico and Honduras and their prospects for utilization for biological control. Biological Control. 20 (1), 76-83. DOI:10.1006/bcon.2000.0879

Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan: National Plant Protection Centre. vi + 236 pp.

Parsons W T, Cuthbertson E G, 1992. Noxious weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkarta Press. 692 pp.

Randall JM, 1997. Weed Alert! New Invasive Weeds in California. [California Exotic Pest Plant Council 1997 Symposium Proceedings], http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/freeform/ceppc/documents/1997_Symposium_Proceedings1946.PDF

Recasens J, Conesa J A, 1995. New adventitious weeds in the irrigated crops of Catalonia. (Nuevas malas hierbas alóctonas en los cultivos de regadío de Cataluña.). In: Proceedings of the 1995 Congress of the Spanish Weed Science Society, Huesca, Spain, 14-16 November 1995. [Proceedings of the 1995 Congress of the Spanish Weed Science Society, Huesca, Spain, 14-16 November 1995.], Madrid, Spain: Sociedad Española de Malherbología. 59-65.

Sauerborn E, Sauerborn J, 1984. Plants of cropland in Western Samoa with special reference to taro. Plits. 2 (4), 331pp.

Singh K K, Mishra L C, 1988. Reduction in chlorophyll and energy contents in plants as indicators of atmospheric pollution. Photosynthetica. 22 (1), 129-132.

Staples GW, Imada CT, Herbst DR, 2003. New Hawaiian plant records for 2001. In: Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 74 7-21.

Swarbrick J T, 1989. Major weeds of the tropical South Pacific. In: Proceedings, 12th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference. [Proceedings, 12th Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society Conference.], Taipei, Taiwan: Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society. 21-30.

Terry P J, 1981. Weeds and their control in the Gambia. Tropical Pest Management. 27 (1), 44-52.

Thulin M, 1989. Fabaceae. In: Flora of Ethiopia, 3 [ed. by Hedberg I, Edwards S]. Addis Abbaba, Ethiopia/Uppsala University, Sweden: National Herbarium. 97-251.

Vos P, 2004. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean. 2. The Comoros Archipelago (Union of the Comoros and Mayotte). In: Forest Health & Biodiversity Working Papers FBS/4-2E, Rome, Italy: FAO.

Waterhouse D F, 1993. The major arthropod pests and weeds of agriculture in Southeast Asia. Canberra, Australia: ACIAR. v + 141 pp.

Webster T M, MacDonald G E, 2001. A survey of weeds in various crops in Georgia. Weed Technology. 15 (4), 771-790. DOI:10.1614/0890-037X(2001)015[0771:ASOWIV]2.0.CO;2

Wells M J, Balsinhas A A, Joffe H, Engelbrecht V M, Harding G, Stirton C H, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in southern Africa incorporating the national weed list of South Africa. Memoirs, Botanical Survey of South Africa. v + 658pp.

Whistler W A, 1983. Weed handbook of Western Polynesia. In: Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, 149pp.

Witt A, Luke Q, 2017. Guide to the naturalized and invasive plants of Eastern Africa. [ed. by Witt A, Luke Q]. Wallingford, UK: CABI. vi + 601 pp. http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158959 DOI:10.1079/9781786392145.0000

Links to Websites

Top of page

Distribution Maps

Top of page