Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper tree)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Natural enemies
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pageIdentity
Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
Preferred Common Name
- Brazilian pepper tree
Variety
- Schinus terebinthifolia var. pohliana Engl.
- Schinus terebinthifolia var. rhoifolia (Mart.) Engl.
Other Scientific Names
- Sarcotheca bahiensis Turcz.
- Schinus mellisii Engl.
- Schinus mucronulatus Mart.
- Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi
- Schinus terebinthifolius var. damaziana Beauverd
- Schinus terebinthifolius var. raddiana Engl.
- Schinus weinmanniifolius Mart.
International Common Names
- English: broadleaf pepper tree
- Spanish: copal; pimienta de Brasil
- French: baie rose; encent; faux poivrier; poivre marron; poivre rose; poivrier d'Amérique; poivrier du Bresil
Local Common Names
- Argentina: chichita
- Bahamas: Christmas-berry tree
- Brazil: abacaíba; aguaraíba; araguaraíba; aroeira; aroeira; aroeira da praia; aroeira do sertao; aroeira mansa; aroeira negra; aroeira pimenteira; aroeira preta; aroeira vermelha; aroeira-braba; aroeira-branca; aroeira-comum; aroeira-corneíba; aroeira-da-praia; aroeira-de-minas; aroeira-de-remédio; aroeira-de-sabiá; aroeira-do-brejo; aroeira-do-campo; aroeira-do-paraná; aroeira-do-sertao; aroeira-fria; aroeira-legítima; aroeira-mansa; aroeira-negra; aroeira-pimenteira; aroeira-precoce; aroeira-preta; aroeira-rasteira; aroeira-vermelha; aroeirinha; aroeirinha; aroeirinha-do-campo; aroeirinha-preta; arundeúva; arvore-da-pimenta; bálsamo; bugre; cabuí; cambuí; coraçao-de-bugre; corneíba; falsa-aroeira; fruta-de-cutia; fruta-de-raposa; fruta-de-sabiá; jejuíra; lentisco; pau-de-bugre; pimenteira-do-peru
- Cuba: copal; falso copal; racimos de rubí
- Fiji: warui
- Germany: Brasilianischer Pfefferbaum
- Paraguay: molle-i
- South Africa: Brasiliaanse peperboom
- USA: Bahamian holly; Christmasberry tree; Florida holly
- USA/Hawaii: naniohilo; wilelaiki
EPPO code
- SCITE (Schinus terebinthifolius)
Trade name
- Brazilian pepper tree
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia, native to South America, is now a highly invasive species that has proved to be a serious weed in South Africa, and the United States (i.e., California, Florida and Hawaii). It is also noted as invasive in Spain, Portugal, Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific, Caribbean and Indian Ocean islands where present. The tree has an attractive appearance and has been introduced as an ornamental and street tree. Although it is not invasive in its native range (Cronk and Fuller, 1995), it has become an aggressive woody weed in exotic locations, displacing native vegetation as well as rapidly invading disturbed sites, often naturalizing (Ferriter and Clark, 1997). High growth rate, wide environmental tolerance, prolific seed production, a high germination rate, shade tolerant seedlings, attraction of biotic dispersal agents, possible allelopathy and the ability to form dense thickets all contribute to this species' success in its exotic range. It has also been found to invade pastures in its native range (Santos et al., 2006). The species should be monitored where introduced but not yet regarded as invasive.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Sapindales
- Family: Anacardiaceae
- Genus: Schinus
- Species: Schinus terebinthifolius
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia is a member of the Anacardiaceae (cashew family) and is among 873 species in 81 genera (Stevens, 2012). Members of the Anacardiaceae family may be fairly readily recognized because of their often black and/or rather resinous-smelling exudate. The leaves are often odd-pinnate and the leaflets are opposite to alternate. The flowers are small, and the fruits often have an excentric style or styles and are often more or less flattened and single-seeded drupes (Stevens, 2012).
Description
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia is an evergreen shrub or small tree, 3-10 m tall (occasionally 15 m) with a trunk 10-30 cm diameter (occasionally 60 cm). Bark gray, smooth or becoming furrowed into long narrow flat ridges. Twigs light brown, finely hairy when young, with many raised dots (lenticels). Sap aromatic, resinous, suggesting turpentine, turning blackish upon exposure. Leaves alternate pinnate 7.5–15 cm long, with narrowly winged green finely hairy axis of 2.5–7.5 cm and mostly 5, 7, or 9 (3–13 or more in varieties) stalk less leaflets paired except at end. Leaflets are glabrous, elliptical or oblong, 2.5–5 cm long and 1.3–2 cm wide, the largest at the end of the leaf to 7.5 cm by 2.5 cm, short-pointed at both ends, often with inconspicuous small blunt teeth toward apex, slightly thickened, hairless or nearly so, upper surface shiny green with several straight side veins, and lower surface dull light green. Flower clusters (panicles) mostly at base of upper leaves, 2.5–10 cm long, much branched, composed of many short-stalked flowers, male and female on different plants (dioecious). Flower about 3 mm long and broad consists of calyx of five tiny pointed green sepals; corolla of five spreading white petals less than 3 mm long; 10 stamens attached at base of large ring-shaped disk; and pistil with rounded ovary, short style, and dot stigma. Fruits (drupes) many in dense clusters, bright red, with calyx at base, with aromatic resinous brown pulp, slightly bitter, 4-5 mm in diameter. Seed single, elliptical, light brown, less than 3 mm long (Little and Skolmen, 2003).
Distribution
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia is native to central and eastern South America including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (USDA-ARS, 2007). It has been widely introduced to many parts of North America, Africa, Australasia, Europe, West Indies, and the Pacific and there are records of the species having naturalized and become invasive in each of these regions. It is present in, but probably introduced to, Bolivia and Chile. It is also recorded from Sicily, Italy (Polizzi et al., 2001), Spain and Portugal and may be more widespread in Mediterranean and sub-tropical regions than indicated in the distribution list.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Planted | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asia | ||||||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | ||||||
-Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | Wu, 2001 | Cultivated as an ornamental | ||||
Israel | Present | Introduced | Planted | CABI, 2005 | ||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2007 | Bonin (Ogaswara) Islands | |||
Singapore | Present only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | Chong et al., 2009 | |||||
Africa | ||||||||
Algeria | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | Planted | Buss, 2002 | ||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | Cronk and Fuller, 1995; PIER, 2007 | |||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2014 | ||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Bethune et al., 2004 | ||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Weber, 2003; PIER, 2007 | ||||
Saint Helena | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Henderson, 2001; Linden et al., 2008 | Invasive in Zululand, where it occurs 'frequently in the open coastal thornveld but [is] absent from the closed coastal thornveld ' | |||
Spain | ||||||||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | DAISIE, 2014 | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
North America | ||||||||
Bermuda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Kairo et al., 2003 | ||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Planted | CABI, 2005 | ||||
USA | Restricted distribution | Introduced | 1832 | Invasive | Luken and Thieret, 1997 | |||
-California | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Luken and Thieret, 1997; USDA-NRCS, 2007 | ||||
-Florida | Widespread | Introduced | 1891 | Invasive | Cronk and Fuller, 1995; USDA-NRCS, 2007 | |||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | before 1911 | Invasive | Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Luken and Thieret, 1997 | |||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Planted | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
Central America and Caribbean | ||||||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | BEST Commission, 2003; Kairo et al., 2003 | |||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2014 | Anegada. Naturalized | ||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Martinez et al., 1996; Kairo et al., 2003; Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012 | ||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | USDA-ARS, 2014 | Naturalized | ||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | USDA-ARS, 2014 | Naturalized | ||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | IABIN, 2003 | |||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Francis and Liogier, 1991; Kairo et al., 2003; USDA-NRCS, 2007 | ||||
United States Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Acevedo-Rodriguez and Strong, 2012; USDA-ARS, 2014 | St John, St Croix | |||
South America | ||||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | Natural | Cronk and Fuller, 1995; USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | Natural | CABI, 2005 | ||||
Brazil | Widespread | Native | Natural | Cronk and Fuller, 1995 | ||||
-Alagoas | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | Silva-Luz and Pirani, 2014 | |||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Native | Natural | CABI, 2005 | ||||
-Mato Grosso do Sul | Present | Native | Natural | CABI, 2005 | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Paraiba | Present | Native | Silva-Luz and Pirani, 2014 | |||||
-Parana | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Pernambuco | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Piaui | Present | Native | Silva-Luz and Pirani, 2014 | |||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Native | Natural | CABI, 2005 | ||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
-Sergipe | Present | Native | Natural | CABI, 2005 | ||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | Natural | CABI, 2005 | ||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | Natural | Cronk and Fuller, 1995; USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
Uruguay | Present | Native | Natural | USDA-ARS, 2007 | ||||
Europe | ||||||||
Italy | Restricted distribution | Introduced | Not invasive | Polizzi et al., 2001 | Sicily | |||
Malta | Present | Introduced | DAISIE, 2014 | Cultivated and Naturalized | ||||
Portugal | Present | Introduced | DAISIE, 2014 | Cultivated and Naturalized | ||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | DAISIE, 2014 | Cultivated and Naturalized | ||||
Oceania | ||||||||
American Samoa | Present | Introduced | PIER, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2007 | ||||
-Australian Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, 2007 | |||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2007; Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, 2007 | ||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | PIER, 2007; Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, 2007 | |||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, 2007 | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, 2007 | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | PIER, 2007 | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | PIER, 2007 | |||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2007 | ||||
Johnston Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2007 | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | PIER, 2007 | |||||
Midway Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2007 | ||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | PIER, 2007 | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | Owen, 1996; PIER, 2007 | |||
Norfolk Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Planted | Cronk and Fuller, 1995; PIER, 2007 | |||
Samoa | Present | Introduced | PIER, 2007 | |||||
US Minor Outlying Islands | Present | Introduced | PROTA, 2014 | Cultivated | ||||
Vanuatu | Present | Introduced | PIER, 2007 |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia was introduced into Florida as an ornamental in 1840. It was noted as invasive as early as the 1950s and now covers at least 280,000 ha (Williams et al., 2005). Molecular analysis reveals two separate introduction events, with one population originating from the Brazilian coast at approximately 27°S and the other from an as yet unidentified origin, although there is now considerable hybridization between the two (Williams et al., 2005). In Hawaii S. terebinthifolia was introduced before 1911 as an ornamental. It has escaped widely in dry lowlands and now is very common in Kau and North Kona on Hawaii, southeastern Maui, and on Oahu near Mokuleia (Little and Skolmen, 2003). In the West Indies, this species was first recorded in 1849 and by 1915 it had been collected in Puerto Rico and Cuba (US National Herbarium).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageGiven the high degree of invasiveness shown by the species in locations such as Florida (USA), it would be prudent to monitor behaviour in other countries and to conduct thorough risk assessments before any further introduction in new countries with similar climate and environment regimes. S. terebinthifolia has been listed as one of the “100 World’s Worst Invaders” by the IUCN (ISSG, 2011) and currently it is declared a noxious weed in parts of the USA, including in Florida, California, Texas and Hawaii (USDA-NRCS, 2007). In Australia it is invasive in Queensland and is declared a W2 noxious weed in northeastern New South Wales. In South Africa, S. terebinthifolia is a declared invasive in Kwazulu-Natal and a category 3 invader across the rest of the country (Henderson, 2001). It appears on invasive species lists for Puerto Rico (Francis and Liogier, 1991), Jamaica, Bermuda, Bahamas, and Cuba (Kairo et al., 2003), as well as in the Canary Islands and on several islands in the Pacific and Indian Ocean (ISSG, 2011).
Habitat
Top of pageIt its native range S. terebinthifolia is a colonist of open areas, and is particularly found on forest borders and river margins, associated with damp soils and riparian forest habitats, although it may also appear as a dry savannah plant. Cronk and Fuller (1995) report a broader ecological tolerance in regions where it has been introduced and become invasive, enabling colonization of a wider range of habitat types including farmed land, mangrove, pineland, grassland, coastal wetlands, riparian systems, forests and roadsides (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Henderson, 2001; Weber, 2003). It has also been found to invade pastures in its native range (Santos et al., 2006).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | ||
Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Littoral | ||||
Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | ||
Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | ||
Mangroves | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia is generally an environmental weed, though it can invade cultivated and pasture land as well as forests.
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for S. terebinthifolia is 2n = 28 and several cultivars have been created (Pedrosa, 1999).
Reproductive Biology
The age of first seed production may be as young as 3 years (Randall, 2003). It is a dioecious species. The flowers are pollinated by diurnal insects, including a number of dipterans (especially a syrphid fly, Palpada vinetorum in Florida), hymenopterans, and lepidopterans (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Male and female flowers produce nectar (secreted by the floral disc). Seed production is high and the seeds are dispersed by animal vectors, particularly birds. Some authors attribute its success in Florida to the fact that its fruits are very attractive to biotic dispersers because its winter fruiting does not overlap with that of native species (Ferriter and Clark, 1997; Randall, 2003). There is a high seed germination rate and good seedling survival, partly because of the plant's ability to tolerate shade. The longevity of the seeds is generally about 5 months (Randall, 1997). Vegetative reproduction from root suckers is achieved, even when no damage to the roots has occurred (Ferriter and Clark, 1997; Randall, 2003).
Physiology and Phenology
S. terebinthifolia has a high ecological plasticity, short life cycle and very rapid growth. In dense stands, S. terebinthifolia grows more like a vine than a tree, with stem height:diameter ratios nearly twice than those observed in open-grown individuals, indicating that the biomechanical plasticity of S. terebinthifolia allows it to adapt its growth form to suit habitat conditions. Thus it can also dominate the edges of salt marshes as a sprawling shrub and maritime forests as either a free-standing tree or a woody vine (Spector and Putz, 2006). In Florida, it has been seen in flower in every month of the year, with the most intense period of flowering in the autumn season, September through November. In Australia, flowering occurs throughout the year, but mostly during spring and autumn. In the West Indies, it flowers and fruits intermittently throughout the year (Francis, 2000). In Hawaii, female plants produce abundant fruits which mature mostly in autumn and remain attached until December (Little and Skolmen, 2003).
Longevity and Activity Patterns
S. terebinthifolia is a perennial, long-lived tree. The survivorship of naturally established seedlings is very high, ranging from 66 to 100%. The tenacity of its seedlings makes it an especially difficult species to compete with, as its seedlings seem to survive for a very long time in the dense shade of an older stand where they grow, although slowly, while in openings they grow very fast (ISSG, 2011).
Associations
S. terebinthifolia is associated with mycorrhizal fungi, which aid establishment as a pioneer species (Pasqualini et al., 2007). It is also associated with many animals for seed dispersal, including the introduced red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) on La Reunion (Mandon-Dalger et al., 2004).
Environmental Requirements
S. terebinthifolia is a moderately frost-sensitive, tropical or sub-tropical species preferring moist conditions and full sunlight for optimal growth, though it can survive partial shade and a short dry season.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | |
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Preferred | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Preferred | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Preferred | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
40-5 | 0 | 2000 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -6 | 3 |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 12 | 26 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 20 | 28 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 8 | 24 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 6 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 950 | 2200 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- impeded
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
Natural enemies
Top of pageNatural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aleurodicus dispersus | ||||||
Aleurodicus dugesii | ||||||
Armillaria tabescens | ||||||
Belonolaimus longicaudatus | ||||||
Brevipalpus californicus | ||||||
Calophya latiforceps | ||||||
Ceroplastes grandis | ||||||
Chondrostereum purpureum | Pathogen | |||||
Cryptoblabes gnidiella | ||||||
Diaprepes abbreviatus | ||||||
Episimus utilis | Herbivore | ISSG, 2011 | Hawaii | |||
Eutypa lata | ||||||
Heteroperreyia hubrichi | ||||||
Megastigmus transvaalensis | Parasite | |||||
Philephedra tuberculosa | ||||||
Pseudophilothrips ichini | Herbivore | |||||
Rotylenchulus reniformis | ||||||
Selenothrips rubrocinctus | ||||||
Sphaeropsis tumefaciens | Pathogen | |||||
Veneza phyllopus | ||||||
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. mangiferaeindicae |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageCABI (2003) lists two insect species which are considered pests of intended plantings, Ceroplastes grandis and Veneza phyllopus. Insects identified feeding on the plant in its native range in Brazil include the leaflet galling psyllids Calophya terebinthifolii (Vitorino et al., 2011) and C. latiforceps (Burckhardt et al., 2011), the lepidopteran Paectes longiformis (Manrique et al., 2012) and the thrip Pseudophilithrips ichini (Manrique et al., 2014).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Animals are the principal dispersal agents. The fruits are eaten by birds (Hasui and Hofling, 1998), including American robins accounting for a major component of the dispersal in the USA (Ferriter and Clark, 1997), whereas among mammals, both raccoons and possums are known to eat and disperse seeds (Ferriter and Clark, 1997). The attraction of S. terebinthifolia fruit to dispersers is thought to be high in Florida, USA, because production occurs at a time when native trees are not in fruit (Ferriter and Clark, 1997; Randall, 2003). In La Reunion, seed are also eaten and dispersed by the introduced red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) which also significantly increased germination (Mandon-Dalger et al., 2004).
Intentional Introduction
Williams et al. (2007) used molecular techniques in Florida to elucidate that spread was due to both human-mediated long distance dispersal alongside local dispersal assumed to be by animals around these foci.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Digestion and excretion | Birds and other wild animals | Yes | Ferriter and Clark, 1997 | |
Disturbance | Yes | |||
Flooding and other natural disasters | Likely | Yes | Ferriter and Clark, 1997 | |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Yes | |||
Hedges and windbreaks | Yes | Baggio, 1988 | ||
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Water | Minor importance | Yes | Ferriter and Clark, 1997 |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | Negative |
Crop production | None |
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | Negative |
Livestock production | None |
Native fauna | Negative |
Native flora | Negative |
Rare/protected species | Negative |
Tourism | Negative |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Economic Impact
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia was estimated to cover 280,000 ha in Florida (Williams et al., 2005), and control of this species incurs an economic cost. There is also concern that the spread of this species may damage income from tourism as protected sites such as the Everglades National Park are further degraded (Ferriter and Clark, 1997). However, Florida beekeepers derive a large income from Brazilian pepper honey (Ferriter and Clark, 1997). It is also listed as a noxious weed in California, Hawaii and Texas.
Environmental Impact
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia has become an aggressive woody weed, displacing native vegetation as well as rapidly invading disturbed sites. Henderson (2001) regards S. terebinthifolia as a potential habitat transformer. It is able to outcompete other understory species because of its tolerance of shade and drought and is able to form dense thickets (Weber, 2003). Native assemblages that are damaged include 'rare sand dune vegetation' (Luken and Thieret, 1997). S. terebinthifolia has allelopathic properties which suppress other plants’ growth (Cronk and Fuller, 1995), Morgan and Overholt (2005). For some birds and mammals the fruit is toxic (Sanchotene, 1985; Carvalho, 1994).
In Florida, it is displacing populations of endangered species such as Jacquemontia reclinata and Remirea maritima (Langeland et al., 2008), and is regarded as a serious threat to the delicate ecosystem of the Everglades National Park (Shetty et al., 2011). In the Bahamas and Bermuda, this species competes very aggressively with native plants. It forms very dense stands, casting very heavy shade, which hampers the growth of native plants principally in coastal forests and margins of mangroves. In New Zealand it is regarded as a weed for concern when occurring on conservation land. In Hawaii, S. terebinthifolia is also negatively impacting several threatened and endangered plant species such as Argyroxiphium sandwicense macrocephalum, Acaena exigua, and Alectryon micrococcus (ISSG, 2011).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abutilon sandwicense (greenflower Indian mallow) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Asplenium unisorum (singlesorus island spleenwort) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Delissea subcordata (oha) | EX (IUCN red list: Extinct) EX (IUCN red list: Extinct); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Chrysodracon hawaiiensis (hala pepe) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998a | |
Eragrostis fosbergii (Fosberg's love grass) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Euphorbia deltoidea (wedge spurge) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Florida | Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013a | |
Lobelia monostachya (Waianae Range lobelia) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Lobelia niihauensis (Niihau lobelia) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Melanthera tenuifolia (Waianae Range nehe) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Nototrichium humile (kaala rockwort) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008b | |
Odocoileus virginianus clavium (Key deer) | National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Florida | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010e | |
Panicum fauriei (Carter's panicgrass) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011d | |
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011c | |
Phyllostegia glabra var. lanaiensis (ulihi phyllostegia) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995a | |
Phyllostegia hirsuta (Molokai phyllostegia) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008c | |
Phyllostegia kaalaensis (Kaala phyllostegia) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Phyllostegia mollis (Waianae Range phyllostegia) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009b | |
Phyllostegia parviflora (smallflower phyllostegia) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified); Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008d | |
Pittosporum napaliense (royal cheesewood) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010d | |
Plantago hawaiensis (Hawai'i plantain) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a | |
Plantago princeps | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010f | |
Platydesma rostrata | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010d | |
Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010a | |
Pritchardia kaalae (Waianae Range pritchardia) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008e | |
Pritchardia munroi (Kamalo pritchardia) | No Details | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011a; US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996b | |
Pritchardia schattaueri (Lands of Papa pritchardia) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009a | |
Psychotria hobdyi (Hobdy's wild-coffee) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010d | |
Remya mauiensis (Maui remya) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009c | |
Sanicula mariversa (Waianae Range blacksnakeroot) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense | No Details | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011e | |
Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka) | NatureServe NatureServe; USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010g | |
Schiedea hookeri (sprawling schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011f | |
Schiedea kaalae (Oahu schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Schiedea kauaiensis (Kauai schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008a | |
Schiedea kealiae (Waianae Range schiedea) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010b | |
Schiedea nuttallii | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999 | |
Schiedea sarmentosa | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011g | |
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda | National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010h | |
Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina | USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995b | |
Sesbania tomentosa | National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010i | |
Sideroxylon reclinatum subsp. austrofloridense (Everglades bully) | USA ESA species proposed for listing USA ESA species proposed for listing | Florida | Competition (unspecified); Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013b | |
Silene hawaiiensis (Hawaii catchfly) | USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species | Hawaii | Competition - shading | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996a | |
Silene lanceolata (Kauai catchfly) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010j | |
Silene perlmanii (cliffface catchfly) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources; Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012 | |
Solanum sandwicense | National list(s) National list(s); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009d | |
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010k | |
Stenogyne bifida (twocleft stenogyne) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010c | |
Stenogyne kanehoana (Oahu stenogyne) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998b | |
Tetramolopium filiforme (ridgetop tetramolopium) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010l | |
Tetramolopium lepidotum (Waianae Range tetramolopium) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009e | |
Tetramolopium remyi (Awalua Ridge tetramolopium) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995a | |
Tetramolopium rockii (dune tetramolopium) | USA ESA listing as threatened species USA ESA listing as threatened species | Hawaii | Competition - shading | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996b | |
Urera kaalae | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Pest and disease transmission | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011h | |
Vigna o-wahuensis (Oahu cowpea) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) EN (IUCN red list: Endangered); USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration; Pest and disease transmission | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011b | |
Viola chamissoniana subsp. chamissoniana (pamakani) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified); Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008f | |
Viola lanaiensis (Hawaii violet) | USA ESA listing as endangered species USA ESA listing as endangered species | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified); Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995a |
Social Impact
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia may cause allergies in sensitive people even without direct contact with its leaves and fruits. Leaves, flowers, and fruits can irritate human skin and respiratory passages.
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page Invasiveness- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has high genetic variability
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of hydrology
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts forestry
- Negatively impacts human health
- Negatively impacts tourism
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Transportation disruption
- Allelopathic
- Causes allergic responses
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Competition
- Pest and disease transmission
- Interaction with other invasive species
- Poisoning
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageS. terebinthifolia has been promoted as a wildlife food plant and for the restoration of degraded areas and especially gallery forests. The tree is also used in hedges, and is used to stabilize sand dunes on the Brazilian Atlantic coast. This species does not have significant commercial value in Brazil, but the wood is used for posts, fuelwood, charcoal and it is a source of tans and resins (Baggio, 1988). The fruits are highly appreciated as a condiment in Europe, where they are used as a substitute for black pepper (Piper nigrum; Laca-Buendia et al. 1992). However, the common 'red peppercorns' seen for sale in Europe (of a similar size to black peppercorns, and often sold in mixtures also with white pepper) are produced by Schinus molle, the false (or Peruvian) pepper tree. S. terebinthifolia is well known for its medicinal characteristics and produces good quality fodder, especially for goats, but it must be used carefully because of the toxicity of some of the plant parts. Essential oils extracted from the seeds of S. terebinthifolia have pesticidal activity against the common house fly, Musca domestica. Its antimicrobial properties have also been investigated (Martinez et al., 1996).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
Environmental
- Amenity
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Land reclamation
- Landscape improvement
- Revegetation
- Shade and shelter
- Wildlife habitat
- Windbreak
Fuels
- Charcoal
- Fuelwood
General
- Ornamental
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Dye/tanning
- Essential oils
- Gum/resin
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageSchinus molle is another widely introduced species that has also proved invasive where exotic, and although also having red fruit, the species’ are easily differentiated in the field, S. molle being generally much smaller, with drooping branches and compound leaves comprised of many narrow leaflets.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageWeber (2003) lists fire as a potential control technique where S. terebinthifolia has invaded fire-adapted assemblages, and although seedlings are effectively killed (PIER, 2007), burned stumps can resprout (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Weber (2003) also recommends the targeted removal of female trees as a way of preventing future production and dispersal of seeds into invaded habitats.
Randall (2003) cites work on the use of extended flooding periods to control S. terebinthifolia. Flooding is not effective as seedlings and trees will survive at least a two-month period of waterlogging (Mielke et al., 2005). On a specific invaded site in the Florida Everglades consisting of abandoned farmland, complete soil removal was found to prevent recolonisation of S. terebinthifolia and natural regeneration of native halophytes as compared to only partial soil removal (Dalrymple et al., 2003), though this is unlikely to be a practical or economic solution in most areas.
Mechanical Control
Removal of young S. terebinthifolia by hand pulling may be useful in the early stages of invasion; however, it is important to remove all portions of the root to prevent resprouting (Ferriter and Clark, 1997). Bulldozers are sometimes necessary but the disturbance of soil brings a risk that further invasion by exotic species may be promoted (Ferriter and Clark, 1997).
Chemical Control
S. terebinthifolia has been effectively controlled with a variety of chemicals and methods even when established (PIER, 2007), such as foliar applications of imazapyr, foliar and cut surface applications of triclopyr, dicamba and glyphosate, and basal bark applications of triclopyr. An additional advantage to chemical control over mechanical treatments is that plants are killed slowly which allows other plants to respond to increasing light and moisture availability over a couple of weeks, and dead stem can even be left to aid natural regeneration of native plants. However, Randall (2003) notes that foliar herbicides act rapidly but are less effective than other techniques except for seedlings. Ferriter and Clark (1997) provide further detailed information on herbicide techniques, products and doses. In the native range in Minas Gerais, Brazil, S. terebinthifolia invasion in pastures was 90% controlled with 2,4-D + picloram, fluroxypyr + picloram, and triclopyr alone (Santos et al., 2006).
Biological Control
Biological control has been attempted on Hawaii but has so far been ineffective (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). In 1950, Episimus utilis, whose larval stages defoliate S. terebinthifolia, was released in Hawaii but did not yield effective control due to unsuitable biotic and abiotic conditions. Elfers (1988) records that Bruchus atronotatus and Crasimorpha infuscata were introduced but they are not believed to have had any significant control. Biocontrol approaches in Hawaii are complicated by the fact that S. terebinthifolia is an important nectar source for the bee-keeping industry (Elfers, 1988).
A fruit-eating wasp, Megastigmus transvaalensis has also been trialled in Florida (Randall, 2003), but Luken and Thieret (1997) consider that other insects native to Brazil may hold greater potential. Natural enemies identified in Brazil include the psyllid Calophya terebinthifolii, believed to be a Schinus specialist (Vitorino et al., 2011), and the previously unknown natural enemy C. latiforceps (Burckhardt et al., 2011). Manrique et al. (2012) described a new species in the genus Paectes found feeding on the foliage of S. terebinthifolia. The species was named Paectes longiformis, and the predicted distribution includes the southeastern states of the USA including Florida, in addition to southern Texas and Arizona, and California.
Pseudophilothrips ichini is another species from Brazil which is being investigated as a potential biological control species for Florida (Manrique et al., 2014). Several other species rejected for biological control in the continental USA, but regarded as worth investigating for other areas such as Hawaii and Australia, include Leurocephala schinusae (McKay et al, 2012), Eucosmophora schinusivora (Rendon et al., 2012), and Omolabus piceus (Wheeler et al., 2013).
Pedrosa-Macedo et al. (2006) studied means of multiplying the sawfly Heteroperreyia hubrichi (Hymenoptera: Pergidae), as a potential biocontrol agent for Florida and Hawaii.
Fungal pathogens investigated for biological control include the seedborne pathogen Neofusicoccum batangarum (Shetty et al., 2011) and the foliar disease Corynespora cassiicola f. sp. schinii (Macedo et al., 2013).
IPM
Randall (2003) suggests the combined use of cutting and herbicides, to control resprouting from stumps.
References
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Wu TL, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department Bulletin 1 (revised):384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php
Contributors
Top of page23/07/2014 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
29/11/2007 Updated by:
Nick Pasiecznik, Consultant, France
Distribution Maps
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