Allamanda cathartica (yellow allamanda)

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Flowers

Allamanda cathartica (yellow allamanda); flowers. Recycling Center Kahului, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August, 2009.

©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Allamanda cathartica L.

Preferred Common Name

yellow allamanda

Other Scientific Names

Allamanda aubletii Pohl
Allamanda cathartica f. salicifolia (Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) Voss
Allamanda cathartica var. grandiflora L.H.Bailey & Raffill
Allamanda cathartica var. hendersonii (W. Bull ex Dombr.) L.H. Bailey & Raffill
Allamanda hendersonii W. Bull ex Dombr
Allamanda latifolia C. Presl.
Allamanda linnaei Pohl
Allamanda wardleyana Lebas
Allemanda cathartica
Echites salicifolius Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.
Echites verticillatus Sessé & Moc.

International Common Names

English: angel's trumpet; brown-bud allamanda; buttercup flower; buttercup vine; common trumpet vine; cup of gold; golden allamanda; golden cup; golden trumpet; Guinea herb; yellow bell; yellow trumpet vine
Spanish: campana de oro; canario; cautiva; copa de mantequilla; copa de oro
French: canari; liane à lait; liane jaune; liane s'aime; monette jaune
Chinese: ruan huang chan

Local Common Names

Australia: golden trumpet vine
Brazil: alamanda; alamanda-amarela; carolina; collazo; dedal-da-princesa; dedal-da-rainha; dedal-de-dama; margarida; orelia; santamaria
Cook Islands: aramena; puapua; tiare regarenga
Cuba: barber; barbera; cinco llagas; collazo; flor de barbero; jazmín de tierra; malasuegra
Dominican Republic: mantequilla
Germany: Allamande; Goldtrompete
Mexico: jazmín de Cuba; trompeta amrialla; trompetilla
Tonga: pua; pula
USA/Hawaii: lani ali'i; nani ali'i

EPPO code

ALWCA (Allamanda cathartica)

Summary of Invasiveness

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A. cathartica is a vine-like woody shrub included in the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). This species reproduces both sexually by seeds and vegetatively by cuttings (PIER, 2013). A. cathartica has been widely cultivated as an ornamental in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Individuals are fast-growing plants and spread rapidly by layering. In addition, trimmings and plant fragments discarded from gardens have the potential to root easily and start new colonies in vacant lots and wild land (Francis, 2000). Currently, this species is listed as invasive in China, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Samoa, Fiji and French Polynesia and as an environmental weed in Australia. Where invasive, A. cathartica has the potential to modify native plant communities by out-competing native understorey plants.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Gentianales
Family: Apocynaceae
Genus: Allamanda
Species: Allamanda cathartica

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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The family Apocynaceae includes about 415 genera and about 4555 species widely distributed around the world (Stevens, 2012). Members of this family are characterized by the presence of “milky latex” and include trees, shrubs, and vines and rarely subshrubs and herbs (Jussieu, 2011). The genus Allamanda is restricted to the Neotropics, where it is distributed from Mexico to Argentina (Hamilton-Brown, 2008). This genus honours the Swiss botanist Frederic L. Allamand, a correspondent of Linnaeus (Hamilton-Brown, 2008). The species A. cathartica (yellow flowers) and A. blanchetii (pink flowers) are commonly cultivated as ornamentals and are widely commercialized (Francis, 2000).

Description

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Shrub or woody vine, clambering or sometimes twining, much branched, 2-8 metres in length, with abundant milky latex. Stems grayish, cylindrical, glabrous or puberulous. Leaves in whorls of 3 or 4; blades 8-13 × 1.5-3.5 cm, oblong, elliptical, coriaceous, the apex acuminate, the base acute, the margins undulate and revolute; upper surface glabrous, dark green, shiny, with a prominent mid-vein; lower surface yellowish green, with the mid-vein thickened; petioles 5-10 mm long; stipules transformed into 4 small intrapetiolar glands. Flowers arranged in axillary cymes. Calyx greenish, 5 lanceolate sepals, 12-18 mm long; corolla infundibuliform, yellow, the tube 7-9 cm long, the limb approximately 8 cm in diameter, with five rounded, revolute lobes. Capsules ellipsoid, covered with numerous spines, infrequent; seeds numerous, oval, compressed, 1.2-1.5 cm long, with a discolorous, wing-like margin (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005).

Plant Type

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Perennial
Seed propagated
Shrub
Vegetatively propagated
Vine / climber
Woody

Distribution

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A. cathartica is native to South America including Brazil, French Guyana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela (USDA-ARS, 2013). Outside its native range, it is widely naturalized and cultivated as an ornamental in warm, tropical and subtropical climates around the world, including Australia, Africa, China, Central America, West Indies, and numerous islands in the Pacific Ocean (for details see distribution table; Broome et al., 2007; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Govaerts, 2013; PIER, 2013; USDA-ARS, 2013).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Burundi	Present	Introduced		Pauwels (2012)
Congo, Republic of the	Present	Introduced		Pauwels (2012)
Gabon	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Réunion	Present	Introduced		USDA-ARS (2013)
Rwanda	Present	Introduced		Pauwels (2012)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Zimbabwe	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Asia
China	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Fujian	Present	Introduced	Invasive	eFloras (2013)
-Guangdong	Present	Introduced	Invasive	eFloras (2013)
-Guangxi	Present	Introduced	Invasive	eFloras (2013)
-Hainan	Present	Introduced	Invasive	eFloras (2013)
Hong Kong	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Wu (2001)
India	Present			CABI (Undated a) Basu and Patro (2007)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
-Arunachal Pradesh	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
-Odisha	Present			Basu and Patro (2007)
-Sikkim	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Indonesia	Present			Sartiami and Mound (2013)
-Java	Present			Sartiami and Mound (2013)
Japan	Present	Introduced		Kato (2007)	Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands
Malaysia	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Philippines	Present	Introduced		USDA-ARS (2013)
Singapore	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Chong et al. (2009)
Sri Lanka	Present	Introduced		USDA-ARS (2013)
Taiwan	Present	Introduced	Invasive	eFloras (2013) Chen et al. (2005)
Thailand	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Europe
Portugal	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Madeira	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Silva Vieria RMda (2002)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Barbados	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Belize	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Cayman Islands	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Costa Rica	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Chacón and Saborío (2012)	Common in forest edges along the Atlantic Coast (i.e., Tortuguero; Morales, 2005)
Cuba	Present	Introduced		González-Torres et al. (2012)	Listed as “potential invasive”
Dominica	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Dominican Republic	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
El Salvador	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
Grenada	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Guadeloupe	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Guatemala	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
Haiti	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Honduras	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
Jamaica	Present	Introduced		Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Martinique	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Mexico	Present	Introduced		USDA-ARS (2013)	Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, Tabasco
Montserrat	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Netherlands Antilles	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)	Saba, St. Barthelemy
Nicaragua	Present	Introduced	Invasive	USDA-ARS (2013)
Panama	Present	Introduced		USDA-ARS (2013)
Puerto Rico	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Saint Lucia	Present	Introduced		Graveson (2012)	Cultivated as ornamental
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Present	Introduced		Broome et al. (2007)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong (2012)
United States	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Florida	Present	Introduced		USDA-ARS (2013)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Staples and Herbst (2005)	Cultivated
Oceania
American Samoa	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Space and Flynn (2000)
Australia	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Queensland	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Csurhes and Edwards (1998)	Considered a weed
Christmas Island	Present	Introduced		PIER (2013)
Cook Islands	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Cultivated; Original citation: Space and Flynn (2002)
Federated States of Micronesia	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)
Fiji	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Smith (1988)
French Polynesia	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Florence et al. (2013)
Guam	Present	Introduced		Fosberg et al. (1979)
Kiribati	Present	Introduced		Govaerts (2013)	Gilbert Islands
Marshall Islands	Present	Introduced		Vander (2003)	Cultivated
Nauru	Present	Introduced		Thaman et al. (1994)
New Caledonia	Present	Introduced		MacKee (1994)
Niue	Present	Introduced		CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Space and Flynn (2000)
Northern Mariana Islands	Present	Introduced		Wagner et al. (2013)
Palau	Present	Introduced	Invasive	Space et al. (2003)
Papua New Guinea	Present	Introduced		Peekel (1984)
Pitcairn	Present	Introduced		PIER (2013)
Samoa	Present	Introduced	Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Space and Flynn (2002)
Solomon Islands	Present	Introduced		Hancock and Henderson (1988)
Tonga	Present	Introduced		Space and Flynn (2001)
Wallis and Futuna	Present	Introduced		Meyer (2007)	Cultivated
South America
Brazil	Present			CABI (Undated a) Miranda et al. (2007) Rodrigues et al. (2008)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Amapa	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Amazonas	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013) Rodrigues et al. (2008)
-Bahia	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Distrito Federal	Present			Miranda et al. (2007)
-Goias	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Maranhao	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Para	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Parana	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
-Sergipe	Present	Native		Koch et al. (2013)
Colombia	Present			Govaerts (2013)
Ecuador	Present			CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Galapagos Islands	Present	Introduced		Charles Darwin Foundation (2008)	Cultivated
French Guiana	Present	Native		Funk et al. (2007)
Guyana	Present	Native		Funk et al. (2007)
Peru	Present			Govaerts (2013)
Suriname	Present	Native		Funk et al. (2007)
Venezuela	Present	Native		Hokche et al. (2008)	Aragua, Bolivar, Carabobo, Delta Amacuro, Miranda, Monagas, Zulia, Margarita Is

History of Introduction and Spread

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Herbarium collections and botanical surveys suggest that A. cathartica was introduced in the Caribbean region by at least the mid-nineteenth century. It was first reported as early as 1864 by A.H.R. Grisebach as a “cultivated plant” in Jamaica, St Kitts, St. Vincent, and Antigua (Grisebach, 1864). Later, in 1873, F.A. Sauvalle reported this species for Cuba and in 1879 H.F.A. Eggers reported it as a “cultivated plant” on the Virgin Islands (Eggers, 1879). In Puerto Rico, the oldest record of this species comes from Bello Espinosa (1881) where the species is regarded as cultivated and spontaneous. In 1888, Stahl reported this species as naturalized throughout the Antilles. At the start of the twentieth century this species is described as a “cultivated and escaped” by Ignaz Urban (Symbolae Antillanae vol. IV) for the islands of Cuba, Jamaica, St Thomas, St. Kitts, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Vicent, Barbados, Trinidad and Puerto Rico (Urban, 1905).

In Australia, A. cathartica was first recorded as naturalized in 1945, and by 1992 it was recognized as a weed in Queensland (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). In Costa Rica, the oldest record of A. cathartica comes from a herbarium collection made in 1900 in Nicoya (Guanacaste) and by 1938 this species is described as a common ornamental plant in gardens throughout the country (Standley, 1938). Later, in 2005, J.F. Morales described this species as “escaped from cultivation and naturalized” along the Atlantic Coast mainly in areas near Tortuguero National Park and in the rest of the country along forest edges in wet forests, secondary forests, and swampy areas near rivers and lagoons (Morales, 2005).

Risk of Introduction

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Since the nineteenth century, A. cathartica has been intentionally planted as an ornamental in many tropical and subtropical regions. It has escaped from gardens and spreads rapidly into disturbed areas and secondary forests (Francis, 2000). Considering that this species has the capability to spread both by seeds and vegetatively by cuttings, the probability of invasion remains high in areas near where it is cultivated (PIER, 2013).

Habitat

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A. cathartica can be found growing in a variety of habitats including disturbed areas, roadsides, forest edges, abandoned gardens and farms (Francis, 2000). It has also been recorded growing on riverbanks, and near lagoons and swamps (Morales, 2005). In Australia, this species grows in moist, well drained soils in tropical areas, along creeks, roadsides, disturbed sites, and waste areas (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). On islands in the Pacific such as Fiji, French Polynesia, and the Galápagos, this species has been recorded growing near sea level in arid lowlands as well as in moist uplands (PIER, 2013).

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Natural

Biology and Ecology

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Genetics

The chromosome number reported for A. cathartica is 2n = 18 (Balamani and Rao, 1981).

Reproductive Biology

A. cathartica has hermaphroditic flowers which are probably pollinated by insects. Flowers appear to be self-incompatible and seeds are rarely produced by cultivated varieties (Francis, 2000). In Puerto Rico, it has been recorded flowering throughout the year and fruiting from April to May (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2005).

Physiology and Phenology

A. cathartica is a perennial species and once established individuals grow rapidly, adding 1 to 3 m to extended length per year (Francis, 2000). This species flowers and grows best in full sunlight (Francis, 2000; PIER 2013).

Environmental Requirements

A. cathartica grows in areas with warm temperatures between 0 and 700 m in elevation. In Puerto Rico, this species has become naturalized in areas receiving between 1000 and 2800 mm of mean annual precipitation. A. cathartica is intolerant to intermediate in tolerance to shade. It grows best in well drained, moist, sandy soils rich in organic matter (Barcellos, 2002). A. cathartica does not tolerate saline soils or highly alkaline conditions, and is killed by temperatures of -1°C (Francis, 2000).

Climate

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Climate	Status	Description
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	Preferred	> 60mm precipitation per month
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Preferred	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	Preferred	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Tolerated	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Tolerated	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)	-1

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Mean annual rainfall	1000	2800	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

acid
neutral

Soil texture

light

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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A. cathartica spreads by seeds and stem segments (cuttings). The main means of spread is probably in garden waste which is dumped along roadsides and in abandoned fields and wild land. Seeds are winged and can be dispersed by wind and water. Stem segments may also be spread by waterways during floods (Francis, 2000; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).

Pathway Causes

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Cause	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Escape from confinement or garden escape	Spread by seeds and cuttings	Yes	Yes	Francis, 2000
Garden waste disposal	This species may spread by cuttings	Yes	Yes	Francis, 2000
Hedges and windbreaks	Commonly used as ground cover and for hedges and screens	Yes	Yes	Francis, 2000
Medicinal use	Leaves and roots are used in traditional herbal medicine as a purgative	Yes	Yes	Liogier, 1990
Ornamental purposes	Commonly planted in parks, gardens, and yards	Yes	Yes	Francis, 2000

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance	Local	References
Debris and waste associated with human activities	Spread by cuttings	Yes	Yes	Francis, 2000
Mail	Plants and seeds sold online www.davesgarden.com	Yes	Yes
Soil, sand and gravel	Seeds		Yes	Francis, 2000
Wind	Winged seeds	Yes	Yes	Francis, 2000

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Economic/livelihood	Positive and negative
Environment (generally)	Negative
Human health	Positive and negative

Environmental Impact

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A. cathartica is an invasive species with the potential to alter native vegetation by displacing native species. It is a fast-growing vine-like woody shrub and in just one or two growing seasons, it can form dense colonies and completely out-compete native vegetation (Francis, 2000; PIER, 2013). Plant parts are also toxic if ingested. All parts contain the toxic iridoid lactone, allamandin, which is toxic to livestock and humans, and the sticky milky sap can cause skin irritation (Francis, 2000; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerant of shade
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Reproduces asexually

Impact outcomes

Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts human health
Negatively impacts animal health
Reduced native biodiversity

Impact mechanisms

Causes allergic responses
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Competition - strangling
Induces hypersensitivity
Poisoning
Rapid growth
Rooting

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses List

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Environmental

Amenity
Boundary, barrier or support
Windbreak

General

Botanical garden/zoo
Ornamental

Materials

Poisonous to mammals

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Ornamental

Propagation material

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Allamanda schottii and Allamanda blanchetii are also commonly cultivated as ornamentals: (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011). These two species can be distinguished from A. cathartica by the following differences:

A. cathartica has glabrous stems and leaves that contain milky latex. Frequently this species has a climbing habit and has relatively large yellow flowers (>10 cm long).
A. schottii has glabrous stems and leaves that contain a clear sap. This species has an upright shrubby habit and relatively small yellow flowers (4-6 cm long and about 4 cm across).
A. blanchetii has hairy stems and leaves. This species has a climbing habit and has relatively large pink or purple flowers (about 10 cm long and 10 cm across).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

A. cathartica has a very strong and extensive root system and therefore a combination of manual and chemical methods are recommended for its management. In the case of smaller infestations, plants should be removed manually and uprooted. All plant segments should be removed from infested areas to avoid re-sprouting. Larger infestations can be controlled by first digging out all plants. Later, all plant segments and re-sprouts should be sprayed with the herbicide triclopyr. Follow-up treatment and repeated applications of herbicide might be necessary to kill remaining plants and all re-sprouts (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).

References

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Acevedo-Rodríguez P, 2005. Vines and climbing plants of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 51:483 pp.

Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm

Balamani GVA; Rao RS, 1981. Chromosome number reports LXXIII, Taxon 30:855-856.

Barcellos DC, 2002. Plantas ornamentais tóxicas: Allamanda cathartica ([English title not available]).

Bello Espinosa D, 1881. [English title not available]. (Apuntes para la flora de Puerto Rico. Primera parte.) Anal. Soc. Española de Hist. Nat, 10:231-304.

Broome R; Sabir K; Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html

Chacón E; Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica ([English title not available]). San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org

Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation.

Chong KY; Tan HTW; Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp.

Csurhes S; Edwards R, 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: candidate species for preventive control. Canberra, Australia: Biodiversity Group, Environmental Australia, 202 pp. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/publications/books/pubs/potential.pdf

eFloras, 2013. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2

Eggers HFA, 1879. The Flora of St. Croix and the Virgin Islands. Washington, USA: Washington Government Printing Office, 148 pp.

Florence J; Chevillotte H; Ollier C; Meyer J-Y, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Fosberg FR; Sachet MH; Oliver RL, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica, 15:222.

Francis JK, 2000. Wildland Shrubs of the United States and its Territories: Thamnic Descriptions. General Technical Report - International Institute of Tropical Forestry, IITF-WB-1. http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/wildland_shrubs.htm

Funk V; Hollowell T; Berry P; Kelloff C; Alexander SN, 2007. Checklist of the plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 584 pp.

González-Torres LR; Rankin R; Palmarola A (eds), 2012. Invasive plants in Cuba. (Plantas Invasoras en Cuba.) Bissea: Boletin sobre Conservacion de Plantad del Jardin Botanico Nacional, 6:1-140.

Govaerts R, 2013. World Checklist of Apocynaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Graveson R, 2012. Plants of Saint Lucia. http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Grisebach AHR, 1864. Flora of the British West Indian Islands. London, UK: Lovell Reeve & Co., 806 pp.

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Space JC; Flynn T, 2000. Observations on invasive plant species in American Samoa. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu, 51.

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Space JC; Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on Invasive Plant Species of Environmental Concern. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 78 pp. http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/tonga_report.pdf

Space JC; Flynn T, 2002a. Report to the Government of Samoa on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service, 83 pp.

Space JC; Flynn T, 2002b. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant species of environmental concern. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, 148 pp. http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/cook_islands_report.pdf

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Thaman RR; Fosberg FR; Manner HI; Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. Atoll Research Bulletin, 392:1-223.

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Distribution References

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Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species., Singapore, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore. 273 pp.

Csurhes S, Edwards R, 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: candidate species for preventive control. Canberra, Australia: Biodiversity Group, Environmental Australia. 202 pp. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/publications/books/pubs/potential.pdf

eFloras, 2013. eFloras., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria .

Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf

Fosberg F R, Sachet M H, Oliver R, 1979. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae. Micronesica. 1-295.

Funk V, Hollowell T, Berry P, Kelloff C, Alexander S N, 2007. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 55, 584 pp.

Govaerts R, 2013. World Checklist of Apocynaceae., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Graveson R, 2012. Plants of Saint Lucia., http://www.saintlucianplants.com

Hancock I R, Henderson C P, 1988. Flora of the Solomon Islands. In: Research Bulletin - Dodo Creek Research Station, Honiara, Solomon Islands: ii + 203 pp.

Hokche O, Berry PE, Huber O, 2008. New catalogue of the vascular flora of Venezuela. (Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela)., Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela. 860 pp.

Kato H, 2007. Herbarium records of Makino Herbarium., Tokyo Metropolitan University.

Koch I, Rapini A, Kinoshita LS, Simões AO, Spina AP, 2013. (Apocynaceae. Lista de Espécies da Flora do Brasil)., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/jabot/floradobrasil/FB4508

MacKee H S, 1994. Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. unpaginated.

Meyer JY, 2007. [English title not available]. (Rapport de mission sur l'Ile d'Uvea (Wallis & Futuna) du 6 au 17 Novembre 2007: Inventaire preliminaire de la flore vasculaire secondaire)., Papeete, Tahiti, Ministère de l'Education, l'Enseignement Supérieur et la Recherche. 39 pp. http://www.li-an.fr/jyves/Meyer_2007_Rapport_Plantes_Introduites_Wallis.pdf

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Pauwels L, 2012. [English title not available]. (Plantes cultivées et/ou exotiques en Afrique Centrale: R.D. Congo-Rwanda-Burindi)., http://users.telenet.be/cr28796/CultAfrC.htm

Peekel PG, 1984. Flora of the Bismarck Archipelago for naturalists., Lae, Papua New Guinea: Office of Forests, Division of Botany. 638 pp.

PIER, 2013. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

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Smith A C, 1988. Flora Vitiensis nova: a new flora of Fiji (Spermatophytes only). Volume 4: Angiospermae: Dicotyledones, families 164-169. Lawai, Hawaii, USA: Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden. 377 pp.

Space JC, Flynn T, 2001. Report to the Kingdom of Tonga on Invasive Plant Species of Environmental Concern., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry. 78 pp. http://www.hear.org/pier/pdf/tonga_report.pdf

Space JC, Waterhouse BM, Miles JE, Tiobech J, Rengulbai K, 2003. Report to the Republic of Palau on invasive plant species of environmental concern., Honolulu, USA: USDA Forest Service.

Staples GW, Herbst DR, 2005. A tropical garden flora: plants cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands and other tropical places., Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum Press.

Thaman RR, Fosberg FR, Manner HI, Hassall DC, 1994. The flora of Nauru. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 392 1-223.

USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

Vander VN, 2003. The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. In: Atoll Research Bulletin, 503 1-141.

Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Weitzman A, Lorence DH, 2013. Flora of Micronesia., Washington, DC, USA: National Tropical Botanical Garden and the Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/micronesia/index.htm

Wu T, 2001. Check List of Hong Kong Plants. In: Hong Kong Herbarium and the South China Institute of Botany. Check List of Hong Kong Plants, 384 pp. http://www.hkflora.com/v2/flora/plant_check_list.php

Links to Websites

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Website	URL	Comment
Catalogue of Seed Plants of the West Indies	http://botany.si.edu/antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER): Plant threats to Pacific ecosystems	http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html

Contributors

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15/01/14 Original text by:

Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA

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Allamanda cathartica (yellow allamanda)

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