Albizia lebbeck (Indian siris)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Threatened Species
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Wood Products
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
Preferred Common Name
- Indian siris
Other Scientific Names
- Acacia lebbek (L.) Willd.
- Acacia macrophylla Bunge
- Acacia speciosa (Jacq.) Willd
- Albizia latifolia B.Boivin
- Feuilleea lebbeck (L.) Kuntze
- Inga borbonica Hassk.
- Inga leucoxylon Hassk.
- Mimosa lebbeck L.
- Mimosa sirissa Roxb.
- Mimosa speciosa Jacq.
- Pithecellobium splitgerberianum Miq.
International Common Names
- English: acacia-tree; Broome raintree; East Indian walnut; frywood; koko; lebbeck; lebbeck tree; powderpuff-tree; rain tree; raom tree; silver raintree; siris rain tree; siris tree; soros-tree; white siris; woman's tongue
- Spanish: acacia; acacia amarilla; algarrobo de olor; amor platónico; aroma; aroma francesa; barba de caballero; cabellos de ángel; canjuro; carbonero de sombra; casia amarilla; chachá; coracáo de negro; dormilón; lengua de mujer; lengua viperina; muche; músico
- French: acacia lebbeck; bois noir; ebénier d'Orient
- Chinese: kuo jia he huan
Local Common Names
- Australia: shack-shack; singer-tree; siris; Tibet lebbeck
- Bahamas: whistling-bean; woman's-tongue tree
- Brazil: coração-de-negro; ébano-oriental; língua-de-mulher; língua-de-sogra
- Cambodia: chreh
- Caroline Islands: gumorningabchey; ngumormingobchey; schepil kalaskas
- Cook Islands: 'arapitia
- Cuba: faurestina; forestina; marabú; whistling-bean
- Dominican Republic: acasia; lengua de suegra
- Fiji: vaivai; vaivai ni vavalagi; vaivai ni vavalangi
- French Polynesia: amurumura; kāsia; paina
- Germany: Andamanen-Kokko; Lebachbaum
- Guam: kalaskas; mamis; trongkon kalaskas; trongkon-mames
- Haiti: bois saane; bois savane; cha-cha; tcha-tcha; tchia-tchia; tia-tia
- India: bage; baghemera; bengha; beymada; bhandir; chinchola; darshana; dieng-salvrin; dirasan; dirasanam; diriina; dirisana; doddabagi; gachoda; garso; goddahunse; harreri; hirih; kalbaghi; kalshish; kalsis; karuvagei; katu vagai; katvaghe; kinhi; kokko; koko; kona; kothia koroi; lasrin; mathirsi; moroi; munipriva; salaunjal; samkesar sirisha; sarin; sarshio; seleyadamara sirsul; shirish; shirson; shrin; sirai; sirar; siras; sirin; siris; sirish; sirisha; sirissa; sirsa; tantia; tinia; vaga; vagai; vage; vagei; vaka; vakai; vellavaka; velvgai; voghe
- Indonesia: kitoke; tarisi
- Indonesia/Java: tekik
- Italy: albizia indiana
- Jamaica: woman's-tongue tree
- Japan: birumanemu
- Lesser Antilles: langue-à-viefemme; shack-shack; vieille fille; woman's-tongue tree
- Madagascar: bano-oriental; bonara; bwar nwar; fany; faux mendoravina
- Myanmar: anya-koko; hamakal; kokko; mai-kokko; tama-kai; zo-fek
- Panama: mataraton
- Philippines: aninapala; langil
- Samoa: tamaligi
- South Africa: lebbekboom
- Sri Lanka: kona; mara; suriya mara; vageri; vakai siridam
- Thailand: chamchuri; ka se; kampu; khago
- United States Virgin Islands: Thibet tree
- USA/Florida: shack-shack; singer-tree; Tibet lebbeck
- USA/Hawaii: 'ohai
- Venezuela: acacia; baile de caballero
- Vietnam: bo ket tay; lim xanh; trat
EPPO code
- ALBLE (Albizia lebbeck)
Trade name
- East Indian walnut
- Indian siris
- kokko
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageAlbizia lebbeck is a perennial, deciduous tree, native to Asia and introduced to tropical regions across the world as a shelter tree for cash crops, for erosion control, as a forage crop and as a source of hardwood. The species can tolerate a wide range of climates and soil types. It reproduces by seed or vegetatively by cuttings or coppicing. It has a range of invasive traits, which include high seed production, a high growth rate and nitrogen fixation, that allow it to invade disturbed areas and natural forests.
It is naturalized in many parts of the tropics including the Caribbean, Central America and South America; in some places it has also become invasive. For example, in Puerto Rico, it appears on a government invasive species list and is a category 2 invasive species in the Bahamas. The species is reportedly one of the 100 most serious invasive species, and a transformer species, in Cuba. In Florida, the species has been listed as a category 1 invasive species (most serious concern) since 1999.
It is also invasive in parts of Africa. In South Africa, A. lebbeck invades coastal bush and riverbanks, displacing native plants, and is a category 1 weed under the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983. It is cultivated on Pacific Islands and sometimes naturalized and invasive along roadsides and in forest patches. For example, on Chuuk Island in the Federated States of Micronesia it is classed as invasive or potentially invasive and is monitored for spread, potentially requiring control.
Although it is native to Australia, it is spreading southward and becoming more common in southeast Queensland where it is now regarded as an environmental weed by some local authorities. It is also regarded as an environmental weed in some parts of north and northwest Western Australia.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Mimosoideae
- Genus: Albizia
- Species: Albizia lebbeck
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe genus Albizia comprises approximately 150 species, mostly trees and shrubs native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa (Parrotta, 2002). The genus is placed within the subfamily Mimosoideae, which comprises 82 genera and about 3335 species of shrubs and trees (rarely herbs) in which nitrogen fixing is common (Stevens, 2012).
The genus Albizia was named after Filippo del Albizzi, a Florentine nobleman who in 1749 introduced A. julibrissin into cultivation. The species A. lebbeck (L.) Benth. was described in Hooker's London J. of Botany 3: 87 (1844). The species name is from 'laebach', the Arabic name for this plant. The species has sometimes been spelt in the literature as 'lebbek'. Related species are A. canescens and A. procera. The use of `albizia' as a common name for this species is to be avoided, as it is often applied to Falcataria moluccana, which is very different from A. lebbeck.
Description
Top of pageA. lebbeck is a deciduous tree that can grow to 30 m in height with a stem diameter of 1 m, but more commonly it is 15-20 m tall and 50 cm in diameter at maturity, with grey fissured corky bark, somewhat flaky; inner bark reddish. It is multi-stemmed when grown in the open but capable of producing a single straight stem when grown in plantations (Lowry et al., 1994). It is described and illustrated by Verdcourt (1979), Brock (1988), Lowry et al. (1994), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and in many other texts. The compound leaves are bipinnate, glabrous or slightly hairy on the axis, pinnae in 2-4 pairs, each with 2-11 pairs of obliquely oblong to elliptic-oblong leaflets, 15-65 x 5-35 mm, shortly stalked, initially bright green and maturing to a duller glaucous green and folding at night (Nielsen, 1985; Lowry et al., 1994). It is fully deciduous but for only a brief period (4-6 weeks) in the dry season (Lowry et al., 1994). The glabrous glands are raised, elliptic to circular, on the upper side of the stalk, close to the base and between most pairs of leaflets (Hyland and Whiffin, 1993). The inflorescence consists of large clusters 5-7.5 cm wide of fragrant pedunculate globular flower heads, 15-40, on stalks 5-10 cm long. The corolla is 5.5-9 mm long, glabrous, cream, white or green, with numerous pale green stamens on filaments 15-30 mm long. The entire inflorescence is 'fluffy' in appearance, 60 mm in diameter, yellow-green with a pleasant fragrance. The pods are pale straw to light brown at maturity, narrow-oblong 12-35 x 3-6 cm, papery-leathery, swollen over the seeds and not constricted between them, indehiscent and borne in large numbers. Seeds are brown, flat, orbicular or elliptic, 8-10 x 6-7 mm, transversely placed with 3-12 in each pod.
Distribution
Top of pageThe native distribution range of A. lebbeck is obscure due to its extensive cultivation. This species is probably indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and to those areas of South East Asia with a marked dry season, such as northeastern Thailand, parts of Malaysia and in the eastern islands of Indonesia (Little, 1983; `t Mannetje and Jones, 1992; Lowry et al., 1994). There are also natural populations in Australia occurring in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, the extreme north of the Northern Territory and far northern Queensland (i.e. the Cook pastoral district) (Doran and Turnbull, 1997; Weeds of Australia, 2016). In India it occurs throughout most regions, except in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim (India Biodiversity Portal, 2016).
Naturalized populations of A. lebbeck can be found in Africa, tropical South America, southern USA (California, Florida and Texas), the Caribbean and on some islands in the Indian and Pacific Ocean (Orwa et al., 2009; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; ILDIS, 2016; PIER, 2016; PROTA, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Feb 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | |||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | |||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Burkina Faso | Present | Introduced | |||||
Burundi | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Central African Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chad | Present | Introduced | |||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as invasive on Moheli (Mwali) Island | |||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Congo, Republic of the | Present | Introduced | |||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | |||||
Djibouti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Egypt | Present | Introduced | |||||
Equatorial Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Eritrea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gabon | Present | Introduced | |||||
Gambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Lesotho | Present | Introduced | |||||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Libya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga, Toamasina, Toliara; protected areas include Ankarafantsika, Loky Manambato (Daraina), Masoala; Original citation: Madagascar Catalogue (2016) | ||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mali | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as invasive on Mauritius Island | |||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Niger | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Aldabra Islands | Present | ||||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | |||||
Somalia | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sudan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Togo | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tunisia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Afghanistan | Present | ||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Likely to be native but also reported as introduced in the Flora of China | |||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Indian Ocean Territory | |||||||
-Chagos Archipelago | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Listed as invasive on Diego Garcia Island | |||
Cambodia | Present | ||||||
China | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Fujian | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Guangxi | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Hainan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cocos Islands | Present | Native | |||||
Hong Kong | Present | Introduced | |||||
India | Present | Native | Throughout India, except Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim | ||||
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands | Present | Native | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Assam | Present | Native | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | |||||
-Chandigarh | Present | Native | |||||
-Chhattisgarh | Present | Native | |||||
-Dadra and Nagar Haveli | Present | Native | |||||
-Daman and Diu | Present | Native | |||||
-Delhi | Present | Native | |||||
-Goa | Present | Native | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | |||||
-Haryana | Present | Native | |||||
-Jharkhand | Present | Native | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | |||||
-Manipur | Present | Native | |||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Native | |||||
-Mizoram | Present | Native | |||||
-Nagaland | Present | Native | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | |||||
-Puducherry | Present | Native | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | |||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | |||||
-Tripura | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttarakhand | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Native and Introduced | Recorded as both native and introduced | ||||
-Java | Present | Introduced | |||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Iraq | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Ryukyu Islands | Present | ||||||
Laos | Present | ||||||
Malaysia | Present | Native and Introduced | Recorded as both native and introduced | ||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
Maldives | Present | Introduced | 'one tree seen in open flat at end of islands' in 1957 | ||||
Myanmar | Present | Native and Introduced | Recorded as both native and introduced | ||||
Nepal | Present | Native and Introduced | Recorded as both native and introduced | ||||
Oman | Present | ||||||
Pakistan | Present | Native and Introduced | Recorded as both native and introduced | ||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | ||||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Vietnam | Present | ||||||
Yemen | Present | ||||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Introduced | |||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | Antigua | ||||
Aruba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bermuda | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba | |||||||
-Bonaire | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Sint Eustatius | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Tortola | |||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Curaçao | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Grenada | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized and cultivated; Original citation: Flora Mesoamericana (2017) | |||
Netherlands Antilles | Present | Introduced | St. Eustatius, St. Martin, Bonaire, Saba | ||||
Panama | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | Nevis | ||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present | Introduced | Trinidad | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
United States | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-California | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Native | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Native | Naturalized | Possibly also naturalized beyond its native range | |||
-Queensland | Present | Native | Naturalized | Native to far north Queensland but also widely naturalised beyond its native range | |||
-Western Australia | Present | Native | Naturalized | Possibly also naturalized beyond its native range | |||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Federated States of Micronesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Marshall Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | |||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Solomon Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
U.S. Minor Outlying Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Status uncertain | |||||
Brazil | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Maranhao | Present | ||||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | ||||||
-Rio de Janeiro | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized and cultivated | |||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized and cultivated | |||
Paraguay | Present | Introduced | |||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Suriname | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized and cultivated | |||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageDuring the last two centuries A. lebbeck has been widely introduced throughout the seasonally dry tropics of Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and South America, mainly as an ornamental and plantation tree, and has become naturalized in many places (Lowry et al., 1994; Parrotta, 2002).
The tree may have been introduced to Egypt from the East Indies by 1807, with later introductions to other parts of Africa (Morton, 1983). When the Suez Canal was opened in 1869, A. lebbeck trees were planted on a 5-mile avenue from the Nile to the Great Pyramids; the famous botanist Dr. David Fairchild, who admired the trees, sent seeds to the US Department of Agriculture in Washington DC and the species was subsequently adopted as a street tree in places such as southern Florida (Morton, 1983). By 1933, it was recognized as invading tropical hammocks in the Florida Keys. By 1990, the species was reported as a fast-growing colonizer of disturbed areas in Florida (Nelson, 1994; Langeland and Craddock Burks, 1998; Langeland et al., 2009), and since 1999 it has been listed as a Category I invasive species in Florida (FLEPPC, 2015). In the US state of Tennessee the species was apparently previously included on the state’s invasive exotic pest plant list in 1999 (Randall, 2012) but it has since been removed and is not on the most recent list (TN-EPPC, 2009).
It was introduced into the British Caribbean islands in 1782 (Howard, 1954) and it appears in herbarium collections made in 1869 in Martinique, 1871 in Dominican Republic, in 1876 in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, and 1800 in Haiti (Urban, 1898; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo Rodríguez, 2015; US National Herbarium). This species was introduced to Brazil by 1934 where it has escaped from cultivation and it is now known to grow spontaneously there (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageA. lebbeck is actively promoted, particularly in relation to agroforestry where it is regarded as having potential for use in silvopastoral systems in dry and semi-arid regions (Lowry et al., 1989). This interest stems from its apparent ability to improve pasture production and quality, in addition to providing a food supplement in the form of the leaves, flowers and pods (Lowry et al., 1989). It has naturalized or become invasive in a number of locations and its future introduction to other sites has the potential to increase the number of locations where it is invasive.
Habitat
Top of pageA. lebbeck can be found growing in deciduous and semi-deciduous monsoon forests, rain forests and humid forests, but it is also adapted to dry forests and semi-arid habitats in tropical and subtropical regions (Cook et al., 2005; Orwa et al., 2009). Within its native range, A. lebbeck is often found on riverbanks and in savannas, forests and bushy areas (PIER, 2016). In its Australian range, A. lebbeck is a dominant species in semi-evergreen vine forests (monsoon forest) in areas with a mean annual rainfall of 1300-1500 mm and a very dry winter but is known to naturalize in coastal forests, savanna woodlands and riparian areas (Beadle, 1981; Hocking, 1993; Lowry et al., 1994; Parrotta, 2010; Ecocrop, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016; Purdue University, 2017). It is also in semi-deciduous microphyll vine thickets on scree slopes of quartz sandstone mountains (Miles et al., 1975), with a closed canopy of emergent trees 9-15 m tall. On lateritic plateaux, A. lebbeck grows with Hakea arborescens and Grevillea mimosoides in the shrub layer beneath low woodland and low open-forest. In India, it is found in tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous forests in areas with a mean rainfall of 600 to 2500 mm (Troup and Joshi, 1983).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome number reported for A. lebbeck is 2n = 26 (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992).
Variation in height and diameter growth, branch number, biomass and chemical contents of seed and foliage were observed among twelve provenances of A. lebbeck collected throughout India (Kumar and Toky, 1994; Toky et al., 1996). Provenances from northwestern and central India, in general, were superior to those from south India. Apart from these reports, there is little information on its genetic variability and there are apparently no other programmes systematically screening provenances or undertaking selection and breeding activities. The value of A. lebbeck is critically dependent upon resistance to insect attack and this should be the first objective of developmental work on the species (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). Although the species has a very wide natural distribution and in that sense is not endangered, the blurring of boundaries between indigenous populations and those established from exotic germplasm is a conservation issue.
Reproductive Biology
The flowers of A. lebbeck are hermaphroditic, fragrant, white to greenish-yellow and borne in rounded, axillary clusters, 2-3.8 cm in diameter at the ends of lateral stalks. They have narrow, tubular, white corollas and numerous stamens. Wind is apparently the principal pollen vector, although the fragrant flowers attract large numbers of bees, which are likely to contribute to pollination (Parrotta, 1988; Lowry et al., 1994).
In cultivation, A. lebbeck can be established by direct sowing, using container-grown stock or as bare-rooted seedlings or stump plants (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992; Gupta, 1993; MacDicken, 1994). The seeds are relatively large. Hocking (1993) reports 7000-12,000 seeds/kg while Lowry et al. (1994) note 7000-8000 seeds/kg. A. lebbeck is amenable to vegetative propagation by several means including tissue culture (Archna and Nangia, 1992), air layering (Misra et al., 1992; Misra and Jaiswal, 1995), stem cuttings (Rawat and Joshi, 1995), root explants (Miah and Rao, 1996) and as stump plants (Hocking, 1993).
Seeds of A. lebbeck may be sown without pre-germination treatment, although soaking the seeds in boiling water for 1 minute, followed by cool water for 24 hours, increases the germination rate. Germination of freshly extracted seeds in Puerto Rico was 60 to 90 percent; after 1 year of cold storage at 5 to 10°C, percentage germination dropped to 12 percent (Parrotta, 1988). However, seeds can be stored for up to 5 years in sealed containers at room temperature with only moderate reduction in percentage viability. Germination is epigeal, and generally occurs between 4 to 20 days after sowing, with peak germination at 12 to 18 days (Parrotta, 1988). In Puerto Rico, seedlings raised in plastic sleeves under light shade reached 20 to 30 cm height in 3 months (Parrotta, 1988). Seedlings develop a long, stout taproot at an early age, are drought-tolerant, and require only minimal weeding during the first months after planting (Parrotta, 2002).
Physiology and Phenology
A. lebbeck is a perennial, deciduous tree. Annual height and stem diameter growth range from 0.5-2.0 m and 1.0-2.5 cm, respectively during the first 2-5 years of growth. Under suitable environmental conditions plants can grow 5 m/year. Trees usually attain a maximum height of up to 18 m (Parrotta, 1988). Trees growing in the dry tropics show a crown diameter expansion of 2-2.2 m/year until mature. Flowering can occur on plants as young as 10 months old (Cook et al., 2005).
A. lebbeck has a growth pattern strongly dependent on seasonal changes (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). It stops growing early in the dry season, loses its leaves in the middle of the dry season some 2 to 3 months later, remains leafless for 1 to 2 months, with new growth appearing towards the end of the dry season. Heavy flowering follows shortly afterwards, but seed set is initially poor (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). Further growth accompanied by flowering and good seed set occurs into the wet season. In northern Australia (within its natural distribution), flowering occurs from September to October and pods mature in May-July at the beginning of the dry season (Brock, 1988). Pods can remain on the tree for 3 to 4 months (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). In India, flowering occurs mainly from March to May, and fruits grow to their full size from August to October (Troup and Joshi, 1983). In Sudan, it flowers March-May and fruits May-August. In Tanzania, ripe pods can be found in July-December with a peak in August-October (PROTA, 2016). In Florida and the Caribbean, it flowers from April to September, but primarily in spring (or the onset of the rainy season), with pods held nearly throughout the year (Little and Wadsworth, 1964; Langeland et al., 2009). In China, it has been recorded flowering from May to September and fruiting from October to May of the following year (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016).
Associations
In the tropical dry and mixed deciduous forest of northern and central India, A. lebbeck is typically associated with the commonly dominant species Hardwickia binate and Tectona grandis. In West Bengal and Bangladesh, it is usually associated with species such as Salmalia malabarica [Bombax ceiba], Hymenodictyon excelsum [Hymenodictyon orixense] and Adina cordifolia. In the dry, deciduous scrub forests of southern India, it is often found with Santalum album, other Albizia species, and members of the genera Acacia, Ziziphus, Cassia and Terminalia. It also occurs as an aggressive colonizer in the dry forests of Punjab (both in Pakistan and India) dominated by Prosopis spicigera [Prosopis cineraria], Salvadora oleoides, and Capparis decidua (Venkataramany, 1968).
In Australia, associated dominants in semi-evergreen vine forests include Adansonia gregorii and Alphitonia excelsa. In semi-deciduous microphyll vine thicket on scree slopes of quartz sandstone mountains associate species include Paramygnia trimera, Celtis philippensis and Pouteria sericea (Miles et al., 1975). On lateritic plateaux, A. lebbeck grows with Hakea arborescens and Grevillea mimosoides in the shrub layer beneath low woodland and low open-forest. Dominant species are Eucalyptus tetrodonta, E. nesophila [Corymbia nesophila], Ficus spp. and Canarium australianum.
A. lebbeck fixes nitrogen after nodulating with a range of Rhizobium strains in many tropical soils, and does so at a rate that makes it an attractive hedgerow species for use in alley cropping (Kadiata and Mulongoy, 1995; Kadiata et al., 1996). This species is not Rhizobium specific and naturalized forms will produce nodules easily (Lowry et al., 1994). This species also forms symbiotic mycorrhizal associations between its roots and various fungi.
Environmental Requirements
A. lebbeck grows at elevations from sea level to 1500 m in a variety of climatic zones where annual rainfall ranges from 600 mm to 2500 mm, yet it will survive in areas with low and irregular rainfall receiving only 300 mm annually (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992; Hocking, 1993; Lowry et al., 1994). In Australia, the distribution is in the hot humid climatic zone. Elsewhere it favours semi-arid to sub-humid areas (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). In Australia, the mean maximum of the hottest month is 30-35°C and the mean minimum of the coolest month is 19-31°C (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). The occurrence in the northern part of Australia has a marked monsoonal incidence of rainfall, with the 50th percentile rainfall being 1030-1755 mm, the 10th percentile being 720-1230 mm, while the lowest on record is 385-1050 mm. There are 75-125 days of rain per year; and the area is frost-free. In India, it is found in areas which experience temperatures up to 49°C, but it is also found in areas which experience frost, with an absolute minimum temperature of -5°C (Hocking, 1993).
Outside of Australia, it grows well on fertile, well-drained loamy soils but poorly on heavy cracking clays, and can tolerate moderately alkaline, saline and sodic (pH<9, ESP<35, ECe<4 dS/m) and lateric soils (Tomar and Yadav, 1982; Hocking, 1993; MacDicken, 1994; Singh, 1994; Parrotta, 2010; PIER, 2016). In Australia, the species occurs on the Kimberley plateau on soils overlying basalts (Miles et al., 1975) and amongst sandstone boulders and basalt outcrops on breakaway slopes. It is also found on the banks of streams on riverine sites (Beard, 1979), and on stabilized dunes or low lateritic ledges above the beach (Brock, 1988). Soil types include laterite and shallow sandy soils.
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
31 | 27 | 0 | 1500 |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -5 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 19 | 35 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 26 | 46 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC) | 5 | 20 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 2 | 7 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 600 | 2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
- saline
- sodic
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageThe timber of A. lebbeck is subject to borer and fungal attack while sapwood is liable to borers and termites but resistant to dry rot (Purdue University, 2017).
Damping off of seedlings in nurseries by Rhizoctonia solani [Thanatephorus cucumeris] has been recorded in India (Mehrotra, 1989) and Sri Lanka (Bandara, 1987) and by Fusarium spp. in India (Harsh, 1993). Occurrence of an unnamed virus disease on nursery plants of A. lebbeck has been reported by Chowdhery et al. (1992). Root rots, cankers, heart rots, spot fungi and rusts (e.g. Ravenelia) can cause damage (Sharma and Bhardwaj, 1988; Gupta, 1993; Lenné and Boa, 1994). Defoliation by Endothella albizae has been recorded in Africa, the Philippines and Pakistan (Gibson, 1975). Leaf blotch and foliar necrosis of A. lebbeck caused by Camptomeris albizae has been reported in tropical Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, the Dominican Republic and Bangladesh (Browne, 1968; Gibson, 1975). Uromycladium tepperianum and Sphaerophragmium acaciae are found on A. lebbeck, as well as on other hosts including Acacia spp., but their importance has not been determined (Browne, 1968; Gibson, 1975; Bakshi, 1976). The leaf spot, Cercospora glauca was recorded on A. lebbeck in USA, China and Nepal, and C. albizae was recorded on A. lebbeck in India, Sudan and Tanzania (Gibson, 1975; Bakshi, 1976). A common spot disease, Colletotrichum lebbeck has been widely recorded on pods and leaves of A. lebbeck in Pakistan, the Philippines and Jamaica (Gibson, 1975). Young plantations in India may suffer serious defoliation by Phyllosticta albizinae (Bakshi, 1976). Dieback and canker are caused by Nectria ditissima [Neonectria ditissima] on A. lebbeck in Madagascar (Gibson, 1975). Fusarium solani [Haematonectria haematococca] causes greyish-black cankers and a severe infection will cause drying of the crown in 15-20 year-old trees in India (Bakshi, 1976). The most important disease of A. lebbeck is vascular wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum. It is widespread in the USA and reported from Argentina and Puerto Rico (Gibson, 1975).
There is also a wide range of insect pests including sap suckers, wood and seed borers (such as Bruchidius spp.) and defoliators such as psyllids (probably Heteropsylla) (Hegde and Relwani, 1988; Ahmed et al., 1995). Insect predators associated with three species of psyllids infesting A. lebbeck in forest nurseries in India are reported by Thirumurthi and Annamali (1995). In Nigeria, damage has been caused by the striped mealy bug, Ferrisia virgata (Kadiata et al., 1992). Young leaves may be subject to heavy predation by the larvae of the grass yellow butterfly (Eurema hecabe) (Lowry et al., 1994); the effect is short-lived. Bark-feeding larvae of the longicorn beetle cause serious damage when complete girdling of stems 40-100 mm in diameter causes dieback (Lowry et al., 1994); little effect is seen in small and large stems. Individual trees exhibit considerable variation and may be more susceptible under water stress.
High seedling mortality may be caused by animal browsing and trampling (Hocking, 1993). In Australia, establishment can be adversely affected by grazing of young plants by mice, rabbits and other wildlife (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). Cheetal deer damage to nursery stock has been noted in Dehra Dun, India (Kumar and Thakur, 1993).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageNatural Dispersal
A. lebbeck spreads by seed. Each mature tree produces large amounts of seeds that are mainly dispersed by wind. Strong winds can carry intact pods for considerable distances (Lowry et al., 1994). Seed can also be dispersed by cattle, squirrels and birds (Lowry et al., 1989; Langeland et al., 2009). A. lebbeck also produces root suckers and once established, it forms dense stands (PIER, 2016).
Intentional Introduction
A. lebbeck is a popular species that has been intentionally introduced beyond its native range in Asia, Africa and America. It is valued for its timber, as an ornamental and as a shade tree. It is also used a source of forage and fodder in agroforestry and silvopastoral systems. It is often introduced as a nitrogen-fixing species for reforestation and improvement of degraded sites (Parrotta, 2002).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production | Nitrogen-fixing species; has been intentionally planted for shade for livestock and for cash crops such as coffee and tea, erosion control, and as an ornamental tree | Yes | Yes | Ecocrop, 2016 |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Escaped from agroforestry systems and gardens | Yes | Yes | Langeland et al., 2009 |
Forage | Leaves and stems are used as forage | Yes | Yes | PROTA, 2016 |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Nitrogen-fixing species | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Horticulture | Widely used in agroforestry systems | Yes | Yes | PROTA, 2016 |
Intentional release | Widely introduced in agroforestry sysyems | Yes | Yes | PROTA, 2016 |
Landscape improvement | Often planted as a shade tree | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Medicinal use | Leaves and seeds are used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Ornamental purposes | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 | |
Timber trade | Yes | Yes | PROTA, 2016 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Pods, seeds and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Orwa et al., 2009 |
Livestock | Seeds are eaten and dispersed by cattle | Yes | Yes | `t Mannetje and Jones, 1992; Lowry, 1994 |
Wind | Seed dispersal in strong winds. Intact pods can be carried hundreds of metres | Yes | Yes | `t Mannetje and Jones, 1992; Lowry, 1994 |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageThis species currently holds a PIER weed risk assessment score of 7 in the Pacific Islands, where any score above 6 indicates the species is likely to be of high risk upon introduction to a new geographic area; in Australia, the species has a risk score of 4, indicating that more information is required to determine its potential impact (PIER, 2016).
The species is known as an ecological threat in Florida, USA, as reports indicate that A. lebbeck has invaded tropical hammocks in the Florida Keys, as well as national parks such as the Big Cypress National Preserve and Everglades National Park (UF-IFAS, 2016).
As a nitrogen fixing species, A. lebbeck has the potential to change soil nitrogen levels with negative impacts on nutrient balances and cycling in invaded areas. Consequently it is considered a potential habitat transformer species (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012).
Impact: Biodiversity
Top of pageInvasive traits for A. lebbeck include its known status as a colonizer and invader that threatens native flora, its tolerance of a wide range of soil conditions and climates, its known status as an environmental and congenital weed, and its ability to propagate by both seed and by cuttings (Gupta, 1993; Hocking, 1993; Lowry et al., 1994; Randall, 2012; PIER, 2016). Under suitable environmental conditions, A. lebbeck forms dense thickets that outcompete native plant species by inhibiting the germination and establishment of seedlings, with a consequent reduction in native species diversity (PIER, 2016).
The species is known to be aggressive in Florida, where it has been reported invading conservation areas in southern and central Florida, as well as parts of coastal and sub-coastal Queensland, Australia, where it poses an environmental threat to native vegetation (FLEPPC, 2015; Weeds of Australia, 2016). Across the Caribbean islands monospecific thickets of A. lebbeck are degrading the native flora of Caribbean dry forests, one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world (Murphy and Lugo, 1986). In South Africa, the species was listed as a Category 1 invasive alien species, meaning it ‘displaces indigenous plants/ serious invader of native ecosystems’ (MacDonald et al, 2003).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Linum carteri (Carter's small-flowered flax) | USA ESA listing as endangered species | Florida | Competition - smothering | US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010 |
Social Impact
Top of pageThis species was originally introduced beyond its native range, for example in Florida, USA where it was imported in the 1880s for use as an ornamental street tree. It has since, however, become a Category 1 invader in the state (Morton, 1983; Lowry et al., 1994).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Long lived
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Gregarious
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Altered trophic level
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of fire regime
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Pest and disease transmission
- Herbivory/grazing/browsing
- Rapid growth
- Rooting
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageA. lebbeck is used in alley farming systems in Africa and India (e.g. Gupta, 1993; Tilander et al., 1995; Larbi et al., 1996) and this has also been trialled in Thailand (Gutteridge, 1988). Lowry et al. (1994) highlighted the fact that in northern Australia the species, as well as providing stock feed directly, appears to enhance pasture production and quality, probably due to shading and related improved soil moisture status and fertility from litter breakdown. The shade is also a benefit in animal production in the dry tropics. These considerations led Lowry et al. (1994) to suggest three management options for incorporating A. lebbeck in pastoral systems: (1) grow trees intensively in rows and woodlots, as a protein supplement, for feeding weaners or as a drought reserve, lopping annually or as necessary, (2) establish trees at low density in open woodland with no management once established, and (3) develop agroforestry regimes in which animal production benefits are combined with wood production. The shallow, lateral rooting habit may mean that A. lebbeck competes with understorey crops in some circumstances (Hocking, 1993).
A. lebbeck is an attractive tree and is widely planted for shade in gardens, and as a roadside tree in India (Gupta, 1993) and Pakistan (Iqbal and Rahmati, 1992). Due to its extensive, shallow root system, A. lebbeck is a good soil binder and is recommended for soil conservation and erosion control (e.g. Shaikh, 1992; Sreemannarayana et al., 1994; Devarnavadagi and Murthy, 1995; Gabhane et al., 1995). The nitrogen-rich leaves are valuable as mulch and green manure (e.g. Tilander, 1993) and in Kerala, India, it is grown specifically for this use in paddy fields (Hocking, 1993). The species is commonly grown as a shade tree in coffee and tea gardens and along avenues (Everist, 1969). It can be planted in exposed coastal situations and as quick-growing shelter for less hardy plants (Hearne, 1975). An extensive literature on the trialling of A. lebbeck for land reclamation after mining and revegetation of fly-ash dumps indicates that there are alternative, better adapted species available for this purpose.
Keating and Bolza (1982) describe the characteristics and uses of siris (A. lebbeck) wood. The sapwood is pale yellow and distinct and the heartwood dark walnut streaked with darker bands. It is moderately heavy and hard, strong and fairly durable, kiln-seasons well and works and polishes easily, but filler is required. The timber can be used for furniture, panelling, flooring, turnery and light construction. It is suitable for decorative sliced veneer but not for plywood. India has a well-developed trade in sawn timber of A. lebbeck. There it is used for tea boxes, sugar-cane crushers, rice pounders, wheels, agricultural implements and house posts (Gupta, 1993). The wood is also suitable for pulping for writing and printing paper (Kalra, 1990), and it is an excellent fuelwood and charcoal species.
A. lebbeck is regarded as a valued forage for ruminants (`t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). Green leaves, fallen flowers and dry leaves are palatable. The foliage is highly digestibility early in the season, or in regrowth after cutting, and when mature it is of moderate digestibility, although it is still more digestible than mature grass. Young leaves taste bitter and intake may be limited when offered as the whole diet. The leaves do not contain phenolics; however, the pods contain saponin, and in Australia are not eaten in large amounts by sheep, although cattle eat them readily (Lowry, 1991; Burrows and Prinsen, 1992; `t Mannetje and Jones, 1992). All fractions fed as supplements increased the digestibility of dry matter intake of low quality basal diet (Schlink et al., 1990). The species is often grown as fodder for cattle, camels and water buffalo (MacDicken, 1994).
Flowers are a rich source of light-coloured honey (Gupta, 1993). The bark, which contains 7-11% tannin, as well as saponin (Pal et al., 1995), is used locally in India for tanning and when dried and pounded can be used for soap (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The reddish gum (Martinez et al., 1995) is a substitute for gum arabic. Extracts from the seed, flowers, fruit, bark and leaves have been used medicinally (e.g. Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Tripathi et al., 1979; Ganguli and Bhatt, 1993). The nutritional value of A. lebbeck seed as human food has been studied (Sotelo et al., 1995).
Uses List
Top of pageAnimal feed, fodder, forage
- Fodder/animal feed
- Forage
- Invertebrate food for lac/wax insects
Environmental
- Agroforestry
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Revegetation
- Shade and shelter
- Soil improvement
Fuels
- Charcoal
- Fuelwood
Human food and beverage
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Carved material
- Dye/tanning
- Gum/resin
- Miscellaneous materials
- Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
- Potted plant
- Propagation material
- Seed trade
Wood Products
Top of pageCharcoal
Containers
- Boxes
Furniture
Roundwood
- Posts
Sawn or hewn building timbers
- Flooring
- For light construction
- Wall panelling
Vehicle bodies
Veneers
Woodware
- Industrial and domestic woodware
- Tool handles
- Turnery
- Wood carvings
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageAlbizia is very similar to Acacia. The former has stamens that are fused at the base, as opposed to free in Acacia (Lowry et al., 1994).
A. lebbeck shares similarities with A. retusa, which has fewer, white flowers in each of the flower clusters and narrower pods (Cowan, 2017).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Physical/Mechanical Control
Seedlings and saplings can be pulled out by hand or dug out, while larger, established trees are difficult to remove and must be cut and treated with herbicide (GISD, 2016; PIER, 2016). This species is known to be intolerant of continuous grazing by cattle (Lowry et al., 1994).
Chemical Control
For larger trees, chemical control is recommended in combination with cutting, by treating stumps with herbicide to prevent regeneration (GISD, 2016; PIER, 2016). In Brazil, the herbicide triclopyr has been recommended to control areas invaded by A. lebbeck (I3N-Brasil, 2016).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageResearch and the implementation of methods of prevention and intervention are urgently needed, especially considering the popularity of A. lebbeck as an ornamental and its potential for aggressive invasiveness.
References
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Buss CM, 2002. The potential threat of invasive tree species in Botswana. Department of Crop Production and Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Botswana, 40 pp
CAIP, 2002. Aquatic, Wetland and Invasive Plant Particulars and Photographs. Albizia lebbeck. University of Florida Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants. http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/albleb.html
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Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore.273 pp. https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2017/04/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
Clark WC, Thaman RR, eds, 1993. Agroforestry in the Pacific Island: Systems for sustainability. Tokyo, Japan: United National University Press. 279 p
Cook BG, Pengelly BC, Brown SD, Donnelly JL, Eagles DA, Franco MA, Hanson J, Mullen BF, Partridge IJ, Peters M, Schultze-Kraft R, 2005. Tropical Forages: an interactive selection tool. Brisbane, Australia: CSIRO, DPI&F, CIAT, ILRI.http://www.tropicalforages.info/
Cowan RS, 2017. Albizia lebbeck. In: Flora of Australia . Canberra, Australia: Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of the Environment and Energy.https://profiles.ala.org.au/opus/foa/profile/Albizia%20lebbeck
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Contributors
Top of page01/03/17 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Marianne Jennifer Datiles, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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