Agave americana (century plant)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Economic Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Threatened Species
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Agave americana L.
Preferred Common Name
- century plant
Other Scientific Names
- Agave altissima Zumagl.
- Agave communis Gaterau
- Agave complicata Trel. ex Ochot.
- Agave cordillerensis Lodé & Pino
- Agave felina Trel.
- Agave fuerstenbergii Jacobi
- Agave gracilispina (Rol.-Goss.) Engelm. ex Trel.
- Agave ingens A.Berger
- Agave melliflua Trel.
- Agave milleri Haw.
- Agave ornata Jacobi
- Agave picta Salm-Dyck
- Agave rasconensis Trel.
- Agave subtilis Trel.
- Agave subzonata Trel.
- Agave theometel Zuccagni
- Agave zonata Trel.
- Aloe americana (L.) Crantz
International Common Names
- English: agave; American agave; American aloe
- Spanish: cabuya (Bolivia); henequen; maguey; penca; pita; pita comun
- French: agave américain; agave d'Amérique; choca; faux aloès; pite
- Chinese: long she lan
- Portuguese: piteira; piteira-brava; piteira-de-boi
Local Common Names
- Brazil: caroata-acu
- Ecuador/Galapagos Islands: Cubuya negra; penco
- Germany: Agave, Amerikanische; Agave, hundertjährige
- Greece: alades; alas; lalas
- Italy: pitta; zabbara; zammara
- Portugal: aloé-dos-cem-anos ; pita; piteira; piteira-brava; piteira-de-boi
- South Africa: garingboom; spreading century plant
- Spain: agave americano; aloe americano; azabara; maguey Americano; pita; pitaco; pitera
EPPO code
- AGVAM (Agave americana)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageA. americana is a large, rhizomatous succulent that grows in a wide range of habitats and soil types. Additionally, it is tolerant to salt spray, high temperatures, and extreme drought. Because this species spread by seeds, but also vegetatively by bulbils and rhizomes, it has the potential to escape from cultivation and rapidly colonize disturbed sites, roadsides, bare sand and coastal areas (ISSG, 2016). Currently, A. americana is considered a serious environmental weed by the IUCN (ISSG, 2016) and it is listed as invasive in many countries in Europe as well as in China, Japan, South Africa, Namibia, Tanzania, Bermuda, Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia among others (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016; ISSG, 2016; DAISIE, 2016; PIER, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016). It is also known to have become invasive in Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, and Uganda.
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Monocotyledonae
- Order: Liliales
- Family: Agavaceae
- Genus: Agave
- Species: Agave americana
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageThe family Asparagales includes about 153 genera and 2500 species that are distributed worldwide. This family is subdivided into seven subfamilies: Aphyllanthoideae, Agavoideae, Brodiaeoideae, Scilloideae, Lomandroideae, Asparagoideae, and Nolinoideae. For some authors, the classification of this family is highly unsatisfactory. There are no specific traits that characterize this family, some of the subfamilies are difficult to recognize while others are very distinctive. Flowers for the most part are a rather undistinguished "lily"-type.
The subfamily Agavoideae, that comprises the genera Agave and Yucca, has been classified previously as a separate family, Agavaceae. The genus Agave includes about 220 species widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world mainly in desert, dry and semiarid environments (Stevens, 2012). A. americana is a highly variable species, thus many “forms” have been treated as species, subspecies, and varieties (The Plant List, 2013).
A. americana was originally described by Linnaeus as one of the four members which he included in the genus Agave L. A. americana is the type species (generitype) of the genus Agave (Hitchcock, 1929). Two subspecies are widely recognized, A americana subsp. protamericana Gentry, and A. americana subsp. americana var. expansa (Jacobi) Gentry (Reveal and Hodgson, 2002). Although the species is given the common name century plant, derived from the long time it takes to flower, it typically only lives 10-30 years.
Description
Top of pagePlants acaulescent or short-stemmed, commonly suckering, trunks less than 2 m; rosettes not cespitose, 10–20 × 20-37 dm. Leaves erect, spreading to ascending, occasionally reflexed, 80–200 × 15-25 cm; blade light green to green or glaucous-gray, sometimes variegated or cross-zoned, narrowly to broadly lanceolate, smooth, rigid; margins nearly straight or undulate to crenate, armed, teeth single, 5-10 mm, 1-4 cm apart; apical spine dark brown to grayish, conical or subulate, 2-6 cm. Scape 5-9 m. Inflorescences paniculate, not bulbiferous; bracts persistent, triangular, 5-15 cm; lateral branches 15-35, horizontal to slightly ascending, comprising distal 1/3-1/2 of inflorescence, longer than 10 cm. Flowers erect, 7-10.5 cm; perianth yellow, tube funnelform to cylindric, 8-20 × 12-20 mm, limb lobes erect, subequal, 20-35 mm; stamens long-exserted; filaments inserted above mid perianth tube, erect, yellow, 6-9 cm; anthers yellow, 25-35 mm; ovary 3-4.5 cm, neck constricted, 3-6(-8) mm. Capsules short-pedicellate, oblong, 3.5-8 cm, apex beaked. Seeds 6-8 mm (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016).
Distribution
Top of pageA. americana is native to North America. Native populations occur from the southern USA (i.e. Arizona and Texas) to northern and central Mexico (Govaerts, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016). It has been distributed throughout the world for its ornamental value and now it can found naturalized in countries across Africa, Europe, Oceania, the Caribbean and Central and South America (Govaerts, 2016).
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 25 Feb 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
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Algeria | Present | Introduced | |||||
Botswana | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chad | Present | Introduced | |||||
Eritrea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Eswatini | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kenya | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Lesotho | Present | Introduced | |||||
Libya | Present | Introduced | |||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Morocco | Present | Introduced | |||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
Rwanda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Saint Helena | Present | Introduced | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tanzania | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tunisia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Uganda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zambia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Introduced | |||||
China | Present | Introduced | Widely cultivated | ||||
India | Present | Introduced | |||||
Iran | Present | ||||||
Japan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Bonin Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oman | Present | Introduced | Established | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Philippines | Present | Introduced | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
South Korea | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Introduced | |||||
Thailand | Present | Introduced | |||||
Turkey | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Europe |
|||||||
Albania | Present | Introduced | |||||
Croatia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cyprus | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | Present | Introduced | |||||
France | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Corsica | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Greece | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Italy | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Sardinia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Sicily | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
Malta | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Netherlands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Portugal | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Azores | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Madeira | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Spain | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Balearic Islands | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
-Canary Islands | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Switzerland | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized | |||
United Kingdom | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Channel Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bermuda | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Virgin Gorda | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Costa Rica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mexico | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present, Only in captivity/cultivation | Introduced | St John, St Thomas | ||||
United States | Present | Native | |||||
-Arizona | Present | Native | |||||
-California | Present | Native | |||||
-Florida | Present | Native | |||||
-Louisiana | Present | Native | |||||
-Texas | Present | Native | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Lord Howe Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New South Wales | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Australia | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Tasmania | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Victoria | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Western Australia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Cook Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Fiji | Present | Introduced | |||||
French Polynesia | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Guam | Present | Introduced | |||||
Kiribati | Present | Introduced | |||||
Nauru | Present | Introduced | |||||
New Caledonia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
New Zealand | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Norfolk Island | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Palau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tonga | Present | Introduced | |||||
Wallis and Futuna | Present | Introduced | |||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Chile | Present | Introduced | Invasive | Juan Fernandez Island | |||
Colombia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Ecuador | Present | Introduced | |||||
-Galapagos Islands | Present | Introduced | Cultivated | ||||
Peru | Present | Introduced |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageA. americana has been widely introduced throughout the world for its ornamental value. However, because it is very difficult to collect, herbarium records probably greatly underestimate the actual distribution of this species in areas outside its native distribution range (PROTA, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016). It is believed that A. americana arrived in Europe around 1520, and the first description of this species in Europe was made by J.A. Cortoses in 1561, growing at Padua in northern Italy (Sydow, 1987).
On the Canary Islands, A. americana was introduced from Central America probably during the sixteenth century, and it is now widespread on most of the islands (Rodríguez et al., 2015). In continental Spain, several species of Agave, including A. americana were introduced in the 1940s as ornamental and cultivated plants, and now these species are spreading into new habitats, mainly on coastal sandy soils (Badano and Pugnaire, 2004).
In South Africa the plant was introduced in the 1960s and now it is spreading across the Western Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Northern Cape, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga and is listed as invasive within the Kruger National Park (Invasive Species South Africa, 2016).
A. americana is widely cultivated and can be found naturalized and spreading in many parts of Australia including Queensland, Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and south-eastern South Australia. It is also naturalized on Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island (Weeds of Australia, 2016).
In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, A. americana is cultivated as an ornamental, but apparently is not yet naturalized (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2005).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageThe risk of new introductions of A. americana is very high. This species is widely commercialized around the world for its ornamental value. Additionally, it has the potential to spread by seeds, daughter plants, and stem fragments which are easily carried to new sites by ocean tides, deliberate plantings, soil movement, and dumped vegetation (Weeds of Australia, 2016; Weeds of New Zealand, 2016).
Habitat
Top of pageIn areas within and outside its native distribution range, A. americana can be found growing on cliffs, urban areas, woodlands, grasslands, riparian zones, beaches, sandy areas, and rocky slopes (DAISIE, 2016; ISSG, 2016; PROTA, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016; Weeds of New Zealand, 2016).
In Portugal and Spain, it grows in littoral areas and warm and dry areas throughout hedges, valleys, slopes, cliffs, stony, arid and sandy places, and along roadsides (DAISIE, 2016). In New Zealand, this species can be found spreading on estuarine and other coastal areas such as cliffs, bluffs, rocky areas, and inshore islands (Weeds of New Zealand, 2016). In Australia, it is often naturalized around old habitations and along roadsides in temperate, sub-tropical and semi-arid regions. It also grows in pastures, grasslands, open woodlands, coastal habitats and along watercourses (Weeds of Australia, 2016).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageA. americana negatively impacts populations of native and endangered plant species such as Cheirolophus crassifolius and Cremnophyton lanfrancoi on Malta and species such as Crambe wildpretii, Crambe pritzelii, and Asparagus arborescens on the Canary Islands (ISSG, 2016).
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
Various chromosome numbers have been reported for A. americana. Nonetheless, the species is a polyploid complex based on x = 30 with reports 2n = 60, 120, and 180 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016). Hybrids in the genus Agave are known, some of them being well documented. Concerning A. americana s.l., hybrids are known with A. asperrima Jacobi, A. salmiana Otto ex Salm-Dick, and A. scabra Ortega.
Reproductive Biology
A. americana is a monocarpic species. Plants produce flowers only once, at the end of their life-cycle after which they die (Nobel, 1988). The flowers are hermaphrodite and are pollinated by bats, birds, and insects (ISSG, 2016). A. americana also has clonal mechanisms of reproduction. Plants produce plantlets (daughter plants) and rhizomes and suckers are developed from sterile meristems (Nobel, 1988; Weeds of Australia, 2016). The reproduction via suckers allows the plant to spread laterally and form very large and dense colonies over time (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016).
Physiology and Phenology
A. americana is a CAM species with characteristic nocturnal stomatal opening and tissue succulence. These traits that have allow this species to colonize water-stressed habitats such as deserts and dry grasslands (Nobel, 1988).
Most Agave species are monocarpic and deplete their sugar reserves to produce a huge quantity of seeds with high germination capacity and high establishment rates on sandy soils (Nobel, 1988; Badano and Pugnaire, 2004). Flowering time for A. americana is from spring to summer, varying among the infraspecific taxa in the native distribution area: subsp. protoamericana in early spring-early summer, subsp. americana var. americana in mid spring-early summer, subsp. americana var. expansa in late spring-early summer (Reveal and Hodgson, 2002). Out of its native range, A. americana s.l. has a flowering time during summer (July-August).
Longevity
A. americana is a robust, perennial and long-lived succulent plant (Nobel, 1988; DAISIE, 2016). The plant typically lives between 10 and 30 years (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016).
Associations
Within its native range, in southern USA and Mexico, Agave species have great ecological importance, since they are main components of arid and semiarid ecosystems and are major food sources for Leptonycteris bats on their migratory routes across the Sonoran Desert and Mexico (Delgado-Lemus et al., 2014). In areas outside its native range, such as the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain), native species of birds such as Fringilla coelebs, Corvus corax, Cyanistes teneriffae, Phylloscopus canariensis, Regulus regulus, and Serinus canaria have been recorded foraging on inflorescences of A. americana (Rodríguez et al., 2015).
Environmental Requirements
A. americana grows in dry and semiarid habitats at elevations from sea level up to 2500 m. It tolerates extreme drought, salt spray, high temperatures, poor soil and low fertility (Weeds of New Zealand, 2016). It can grow on sandy and loamy soils, but prefers well-drained soil with pH ranging from 5.6 to 6.5 (PROTA, 2016). It can colonize bare sand, but cannot grow in shaded conditions (ISSG, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016).
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tolerated | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Tolerated | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
BS - Steppe climate | Preferred | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | |
BW - Desert climate | Preferred | < 430mm annual precipitation | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Tolerated | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year |
Air Temperature
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC) | -3 | |
Mean annual temperature (ºC) | 10 | 30 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC) | 40 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 4 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 100 | 700 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Special soil tolerances
- infertile
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageA. americana spreads by seeds, which can be dispersed by both wind and water, and vegetatively via rhizomes and suckers. Daughter plants, seeds and stem fragments are carried to new sites by ocean tides, by deliberate plantings, soil movement especially down banks, dumped vegetation, and naturally as garden escapes (ISSG, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016, Weeds of New Zealand, 2016). Plants are most commonly spread into bushland areas in dumped garden waste (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016).
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Botanical gardens and zoos | Botanical gardens | Yes | Yes | USDA-NRCS, 2016 |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments escaped from cultivation | Yes | Yes | DAISIE, 2016 |
Escape from confinement or garden escape | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments escaped from cultivation | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Garden waste disposal | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments in dumped garden waste | Yes | Yes | DAISIE, 2016 |
Garden waste disposal | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments in dumped garden waste | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Sometimes planted to control erosion | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS, 2016 |
Hedges and windbreaks | Planted to create natural hedges | Yes | Yes | PROTA, 2016 |
Horticulture | Widely commercialized as ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS, 2016 |
Landscape improvement | Widely commercialized as ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS, 2016 |
Medicinal use | Leaves and sap used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS, 2016 |
Ornamental purposes | Widely planted as ornamental | Yes | Yes | USDA-ARS, 2016 |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments in dumped garden waste | Yes | Yes | DAISIE, 2016 |
Debris and waste associated with human activities | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments in dumped garden waste | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Floating vegetation and debris | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Soil, sand and gravel | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Land vehicles | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Water | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Wind | Seeds, bulbils and stem fragments | Yes | Yes | Weeds of Australia, 2016 |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Negative |
Economic Impact
Top of pageThe prickles along the leaf margins and sharp spines on the tips of the leaves can cause injury to people and animals (both domestic livestock and native animals). Large clumps can have an impact on pastures, as these dense colonies can prevent the growth of more suitable species and restrict the access of livestock (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016; ISSG, 2016; Weeds of New Zealand, 2016).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageA. americana is regarded as an environmental weed and invasive species in many countries in Europe as well as in China, Japan, South Africa, Namibia, Tanzania, Bermuda, Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016; ISSG, 2016; DAISIE, 2016; PIER, 2016; Weeds of Australia, 2016). The species grows forming dense almost impenetrable thickets that displace native vegetation and inhibit the movement of native fauna (ISSG, 2016). One of the major impacts of A. americana is its large leaves shading out native plant species. It also has a very dense network of rhizome offshoots, which could draw resources away from native species. The rhizomatous nature of A. americana could also alter the nutrient status of the soil (ISSG, 2016).
Impact on Habitats
In New Zealand, A. americana is replacing vulnerable dune species. It also colonizes bare sand, causing build-ups of sand which can lead to new (usually exotic) habitats being formed and erosion elsewhere (Weeds of New Zealand, 2016). In South Africa, it is considered a noxious invasive weed and grows forming dense, almost impenetrable thickets that can cause injury to people and animals (Invasive Species South Africa, 2016). In Australia, A. americana is regarded as an environmental weed in Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia and Queensland, and is thought to pose a significant threat to rangeland biodiversity in Australia. Though this species grows and spreads slowly, and is largely seen as an invader of roadsides and disturbed sites, it is also found growing in natural vegetation and eventually forms dense almost impenetrable thickets (Weeds of Australia, 2016).
In coastal dune habitats in southern Spain, A. americana is one of the invasive plants listed as increasing in number and affecting the conservation of natural coastal ecosystems.
Impact on Biodiversity
On the island of Malta, A. americana is outcompeting and replacing critically endangered Cheirolophus crassifolius (the national plant of Malta) and the endangered Atriplex lanfancoi (formerly Cremnophyton lanfrancoi) (ISSG, 2016). On the Canary Islands, A. americana is an aggressive invader threatening species listed as critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable such as Crambe wildpretii, Crambe pritzelii and Asparagus arborescens (Arévalo et al. 2005; ISSG, 2016). On Tenerife in the Canary Islands, the native bird community uses A. americana as a feeding resource at a higher rate than it uses endemic plants, which could have positive effects on birds but negative impact on the pollination of invasive plants (Rodríguez et al., 2015).
Threatened Species
Top of pageThreatened Species | Conservation Status | Where Threatened | Mechanism | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crambe wildpretii (Col de Risco) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) | Canary Islands | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering | ISSG, 2016 | |
Crambe pritzelii (Col de Risco) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) | Canary Islands | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering | ISSG, 2016 | |
Cheirolophus crassifolius (Maltese centaury) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) | Malta | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering | ISSG, 2016 | |
Atriplex lanfrancoi (Maltese Cliff Orache) | EN (IUCN red list: Endangered) | Malta | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering | ISSG, 2016 | |
Helichrysum melitense (Maltese Everlasting) | CR (IUCN red list: Critically endangered) | Malta | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering | ISSG, 2016 | |
Asparagus arborescens | VU (IUCN red list: Vulnerable) | Canary Islands | Competition - monopolizing resources; Competition - smothering | ISSG, 2016 |
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Is a habitat generalist
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Pioneering in disturbed areas
- Highly mobile locally
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Long lived
- Gregarious
- Reproduces asexually
- Damaged ecosystem services
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of hydrology
- Modification of successional patterns
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced amenity values
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Soil accretion
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Causes allergic responses
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - smothering
- Poisoning
- Rooting
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
- Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Top of pageEconomic Value
A. americana has been widely commercialized for its ornamental value. This species is grown as an ornamental and hedge plant on all continents, except Antarctica (Nobel, 1988; USDA-ARS, 2016). A. americana is also used as a fodder, although it cannot be directly grazed and requires processing before feeding. The leaf fibres are sometimes used to make textiles (PROTA, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Social Benefit
In Mexico and South Africa, A. americana is used to brew an alcoholic liquor beverage (PROTA, 2016). It is also used in traditional medicine to treat to treat cardiac problems, high blood pressure, gastro-intestinal problems and rheumatic pain (PROTA, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Environmental Services
A. americana is used a hedge plant and planted along contours for erosion control and for reclamation of denuded and overgrazed land. (USDA-ARS, 2016).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Agroforestry
- Amenity
- Boundary, barrier or support
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Landscape improvement
- Soil conservation
General
- Botanical garden/zoo
- Sociocultural value
Human food and beverage
- Beverage base
- Honey/honey flora
Materials
- Fibre
- Poisonous to mammals
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Ornamental
- garden plant
- Propagation material
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageA. americana may be easily confused with other agave and hemp species such as Agave sisalana, Agave angustifolia, Furcraea foetida and Furcraea selloa. According to the website Weeds of Australia (2016), these species can be distinguished by the following differences:
A. americana has very large greyish or variegated leaves that are usually 1-2 m long on adult plants. These leaves have numerous, relatively large prickles (5-10 mm long) along their margins. Its flowers are borne in an upright position and are yellow or yellowish-green in colour. This species produces large capsules and usually doesn't develop plantlets (i.e. bulbils) on the branches of its flower clusters.
A. sisalana has relatively large dark green or greyish-green leaves that are usually 0.5-1.3 m long on adult plants. These leaves do not have any prickles on their margins. Its flowers are borne in an upright position and are yellow or yellowish-green in colour. This species usually doesn't produce capsules, instead developing numerous plantlets (i.e. bulbils) on the branches of its flower clusters.
A. angustifolia has relatively large green, greyish-green or variegated leaves that are usually 0.5-1 m long on adult plants. These leaves have many, relatively small prickles (2-5 mm long) along their margins. Its flowers are borne in an upright position and are yellow or yellowish-green in colour. This species produces large capsules and sometimes also develops plantlets (i.e. bulbils) on the branches of its flower clusters.
F. foetida has very large pale green leaves that are usually 1-2 m long on adult plants. These leaves usually have some prickles along their margins, but mainly near the bases of the leaves. Its flowers are borne in a drooping position and are whitish or greenish-white in colour. This species doesn't produce capsules, instead developing numerous plantlets (i.e. bulbils) on the branches of its flower clusters.
F. selloa has very large variegated leaves that are usually 1-2 m long on adult plants. These leaves have numerous relatively large prickles (7-8 mm long) along their margins. Its flowers are borne in a drooping position and are whitish or greenish-white in colour. This species doesn't produce capsules, instead developing numerous plantlets (i.e. bulbils) on the branches of its flower clusters.
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control of A. americana is mainly achieved by using a combination of physical and chemical management techniques (ISSG, 2016). Using mechanical treatment to remove large individuals together with herbicides to control smaller plants delays invasion and allows recovery of natural vegetation (Arévalo et al., 2011). Combined mechanical and chemical control gave little recovery of the invasive plant four years after treatment in Tenerife (Arévalo et al., 2011).
Physical/Mechanical Control
Small infestations of A. americana can be controlled by digging out small plants manually. Large plants can be moved by machinery. Care should be taken to dig out the taproot to prevent spread by suckering, and all pieces need to be disposed of properly (Weeds of New Zealand, 2016).
Chemical Control
Large infestations of A. americana can be controlled by cutting down leaves close to the ground and painting the stump immediately with herbicide such as glyphosate and picloram + 2,4-D. Follow up treatment may be necessary, especially for larger plants (ISSG, 2016; Weeds of New Zealand, 2016).
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2005. Monocots and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 52:1-416. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/PRFlora/monocots/
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Bethune S, Griffin M, Joubert D, 2004. National Review of Invasive Alien Species in Namibia. Consultancy Report on Information Collected Regarding Invasive Alien Species in Namibia for the Southern Africa Biodiversity Support Programme. Ministry of Environment and Tourism Directorate of Environmental Affairs
BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016. Invasive plants key and fact sheets. http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/index.htm
Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation
Chong KY, Tan HTW, Corlett RT, 2009. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species. Singapore: Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore, 273 pp. http://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/nus/pdf/PUBLICATION/LKCNH%20Museum%20Books/LKCNHM%20Books/flora_of_singapore_tc.pdf
DAISIE, 2016. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org/default.do
Dana ED, Sobrino E, Sanz-Elorza M, 2003. Plantas invasoras en España: un Nuevo problema en las estrategias de conservación. Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016. Flora of North America North of Mexico. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP) (Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia). http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Asparagaceae. Richmond, London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Henderson L, 2001. Alien weeds and invasive plants. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 12. South Africa
Henderson L, 2005. An analysis of 233 species of important and potentially important invasive plants in South Africa. South Africa: Plant Protection Research Institute
Hitchcock AS, 1929. Standard species of Linnaean genera of phanerogamae. In: International Botanical Congress, Cambridge (England), Proposals by British Botanists. London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office
Invasive Species South Africa, 2016. Invasive Plants A-Z. http://www.invasives.org.za/plants/plants-a-z
ISSG, 2016. Agave americana in the Global invasive species database. http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1664
MacKee HS, 1994. Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. (Catalogue des plantes introduites et cultivées en Nouvelle-Calédonie.) Paris, France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 164 pp
McCormack G, 2013. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database. Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/search.asp
Nobel, P. S., 1988. Environmental biology of agaves and cacti, Cambridge University Press.270 pp.
Orchard AE, 1994. Canberra, Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service.
PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2016. PROTA4U web database. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.info
Reveal JL, Hodgson WC, 2002. Agave L. In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. Flora of North America North of México. Volume 26.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
Silva L, Ojeda LE, Rodríguez Luengo JL, 2008. Invasive Terrestrial Flora and Fauna of Macaronesia. TOP 100 in Azores, Madeira and Canaries. ARENA, Ponta Delgada, 546 pp. EPPO Reporting Service No. 4. Paris
Stevens PF, 2012. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Sydow G, 1987. The First Agave in Europe. British Cactus and Succulent Journal, 5, 76-78.
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
Toshiya Y, 2005. Preliminary weed risk assessment of landscaping plants. Landscape Research, 68, 296-300.
USDA-ARS, 2016. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl
USDA-NRCS, 2016. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov/
Weber E, 2003. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.548 pp.
Weeds of Australia, 2016. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=
Weeds of New Zealand, 2016. Weedbuster: online resources for Agave americana. http://www.weedbusters.org.nz/weed-information/agave-americana/59/
Distribution References
Bethune S, Griffin M, Joubert D, 2004. National Review of Invasive Alien Species in Namibia. In: Consultancy Report on Information Collected Regarding Invasive Alien Species in Namibia for the Southern Africa Biodiversity Support Programme, Ministry of Environment and Tourism Directorate of Environmental Affairs.
BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016. Invasive plants key and fact sheets., http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/index.htm
Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008. Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos., Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation.
DAISIE, 2016. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Dana ED, Sobrino E, Sanz-Elorza M, 2003. (Plantas invasoras en España: un Nuevo problema en las estrategias de conservación)., Madrid, Spain: Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.
Florence J, Chevillotte H, Ollier C, Meyer JY, 2013. Botanical database of the Nadeaud Herbarium of French Polynesia. (Base de données botaniques Nadeaud de l'Herbier de la Polynésie Française (PAP))., http://www.herbier-tahiti.pf
Govaerts R, 2016. World Checklist of Asparagaceae., Richmond, London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Henderson L, 2001. (Alien weeds and invasive plants). In: Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 12, South Africa:
ISSG, 2016. Agave americana in the Global invasive species database., http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1664
McCormack G, 2013. Cook Islands Biodiversity Database, Version 2007.2., Rarotonga, Cook Islands: Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/search.asp
Orchard AE, 1994. Flora of Australia. Vol. 49, Oceanic islands 1., Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
PIER, 2016. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk., Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.htm
Silva L, Ojeda LE, Rodríguez Luengo JL, 2008. Invasive Terrestrial Flora and Fauna of Macaronesia. In: TOP 100 in Azores, Madeira and Canaries. ARENA, Ponta Delgada, Paris, EPPO Reporting Service No. 4. 546 pp.
Toshiya Y, 2005. Preliminary weed risk assessment of landscaping plants. In: Landscape Research, 68 296-300.
USDA-NRCS, 2016. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Weeds of Australia, 2016. Weeds of Australia, Biosecurity Queensland Edition., http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/search.html?zoom_query=
Weeds of New Zealand, 2016. Weedbuster: online resources for Agave americana., http://www.weedbusters.org.nz/weed-information/agave-americana/59/
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Fact Sheet - Agave americana | https://www.moretonbay.qld.gov.au/uploadedFiles/moretonbay/environment/vegetation/Agave.pdf | |
Global invasive species database | http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1664 | |
Invasive species in Portugal | http://invasoras.pt/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Agave-americana_en.pdf | |
Invasive species South Africa | http://www.invasives.org.za/legislation/item/878-spreading-century-plant-agave-americana |
Contributors
Top of page26//10/16 Updated by:
Julissa Rojas-Sandoval, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
22/09/16 Original text by:
Duilio Iamonico, University of Rome Sapienza, Italy
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