Indigofera tinctoria (true indigo)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Biology and Ecology
- Climate
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Means of Movement and Dispersal
- Pathway Causes
- Pathway Vectors
- Impact Summary
- Environmental Impact
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
- References
- Links to Websites
- Contributors
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Indigofera tinctoria L.
Preferred Common Name
- true indigo
Other Scientific Names
- Indigofera bergii Vatke
- Indigofera cinerascens DC.
- Indigofera houer Forssk.
- Indigofera indica Lam.
- Indigofera oligophylla Baker
- Indigofera orthocarpa (DC.) O.Berg & C.F.Schmidt
- Indigofera sumatrana Gaertn.
- Indigofera tinctoria Blanco
- Indigofera tulearensis Drake
International Common Names
- English: common indigo; Indian indigo
- Spanish: indigo
- French: indigotier
- Chinese: mu lan
Local Common Names
- Brazil: anil
- Cuba: añil; añil cimarrón; añil de Guatemala
- Germany: Faerber- Indigostrauch
- Haiti: digo digot
- Lesser Antilles: French indigo
- Myanmar: me; me-nai; me-net
- Puerto Rico: añil verdadero
EPPO code
- INDTI (Indigofera tinctoria)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageI. tinctoria is a leguminous plant which is widespread across tropical regions around the globe, as it had been cultivated and highly valued for centuries as a main source of indigo dye, leading to its common names ‘true indigo’ and ‘common indigo’, before commercial synthetic indigo production came into use in 1897 and reduced the world’s total plant-derived indigo production to 4% by 1914 (Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto, 1991; PROTA, 2014). I. tinctoria is listed as an “agricultural weed”, “cultivation escape”, “environmental weed”, “garden thug”, “naturalized”, “sleeper weed”, and “weed” in the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012), indicating that it has the potential to invade native ecosystems and poses both a present and a future threat. The species was included in Kaufman’s 2013 Invasive Plants of North America (Kaufman and Kaufman, 2013).
Taxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Fabales
- Family: Fabaceae
- Subfamily: Faboideae
- Genus: Indigofera
- Species: Indigofera tinctoria
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageIndigofera L.is the largest genus of the tribe Indigofereae, in the Fabaceae (Leguminosae) family, containing over 700 species found in the tropics and subtropics (Puy et al., 2002). Linnaeus (1753) described the genus based on the three species of I. tinctoria, I. hirsuta and I. glabra, with the name Indigofera referring to the indigo dye produced by members of the genus. Commonly called ‘true indigo’, the species name I. tinctoria reflects its status as a primary source of dye among the indigo plants.
Description
Top of pageErect shrub to 1.5 m tall, many-branched from base. Leaves imparipinnate; leaflets opposite, 11-13, 1.5-2.5 × 0.7-1 cm, oblong, elliptic or oblanceolate, membranous, puberulent on lower surface, the apex mucronulate, rounded or seldom obtuse, the base tapering to obtuse, the margins entire; petiolules 1-1.5 mm long; stipules awl-shaped, 2-3 mm long, persistent. Racemes axillary, many-flowered, 5-10 cm long, sericeous; bracts minute, persistent. Calyx bell-shaped, 1-1.5 mm long, pubescent; corolla pink, tomentose without, the standard to 5 mm long, broadly elliptic, the wings and keel as long as the standard. Legume 3-3.5 cm long, curved only at apex, cylindrical, becoming glabrous, tardily dehiscent; seeds ca. 2 mm long, square-shaped to oblong (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 1996).
Distribution
Top of pageI. tinctoria is thought to be native to the Malaysian Archipelago and grows spontaneously in Africa, although the species’ origins remain unclear (Duke, 1981; Bisby et al., 1994; MacLeod, 1997). It was widely cultivated in India, China, Java, Africa, Malagasy, and tropical America, and has been known to have escaped from cultivation in many of these areas (Duke, 1981; Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto, 1991; Seidemann, 2005).
The species’ native status in Madagascar is uncertain (ILDIS, 2014); USDA-ARS (2014) reports it as native to Madagascar, while Puy et al. (2002) reported it as a naturalized species.
Distribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 17 Dec 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Angola | Present | Native | |||||
Benin | Present | Native | |||||
Botswana | Present | Native | |||||
Cabo Verde | Present | Native | |||||
Cameroon | Present | Native | |||||
Central African Republic | Present | Native | |||||
Chad | Present | Native | |||||
Comoros | Present | Introduced | Anjouan I, Grande Comore I. | ||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Native | |||||
Ethiopia | Present | Native | |||||
Gabon | Present | Native | |||||
Gambia | Present | Native | |||||
Ghana | Present | Native | |||||
Guinea | Present | Native | |||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Native | |||||
Kenya | Present | Native | |||||
Madagascar | Present, Widespread | Naturalized | Native according to USDA-GRIN, naturalised according to Puy et al, 2002, Uncertain status in ILDIS. | ||||
Malawi | Present | Native | |||||
Mali | Present | Native | |||||
Mauritius | Present | ||||||
-Rodrigues | Present | Introduced | |||||
Mayotte | Present | Introduced | 1850 | ||||
Mozambique | Present | Native | |||||
Niger | Present | Native | |||||
Nigeria | Present | Native | |||||
Réunion | Present | Introduced | |||||
São Tomé and Príncipe | Present | Native | |||||
Senegal | Present | Native | |||||
Seychelles | Present | Introduced | |||||
Somalia | Present | Native | |||||
South Africa | Present | Native | |||||
Sudan | Present | Native | |||||
Tanzania | Present | Native | |||||
Togo | Present | Native | |||||
Uganda | Present | Native | |||||
Zambia | Present | Native | |||||
Zimbabwe | Present | Native | |||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bangladesh | Present | Native | |||||
Cambodia | Present | Native | |||||
China | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Anhui | Present | Native | |||||
-Guangdong | Present | ||||||
-Guangxi | Present | ||||||
-Guizhou | Present | ||||||
-Hainan | Present | Native | |||||
-Yunnan | Present | ||||||
Georgia | Present | Introduced | Abkhazia, Adzharia. | ||||
India | Present | Native | |||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Arunachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Assam | Present | Native | |||||
-Bihar | Present | Native | |||||
-Dadra and Nagar Haveli | Present | Native | |||||
-Daman and Diu | Present | Native | |||||
-Delhi | Present | Native | |||||
-Goa | Present | Native | |||||
-Gujarat | Present | Native | |||||
-Haryana | Present | Native | |||||
-Himachal Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Jammu and Kashmir | Present | Native | |||||
-Karnataka | Present | Native | |||||
-Kerala | Present | Native | |||||
-Madhya Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-Maharashtra | Present | Native | |||||
-Manipur | Present | Native | |||||
-Meghalaya | Present | Native | |||||
-Mizoram | Present | Native | |||||
-Nagaland | Present | Native | |||||
-Odisha | Present | Native | |||||
-Punjab | Present | Native | |||||
-Rajasthan | Present | Native | |||||
-Sikkim | Present | Native | |||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present | Native | |||||
-Tripura | Present | Native | |||||
-Uttar Pradesh | Present | Native | |||||
-West Bengal | Present | Native | |||||
Indonesia | Present | Native | |||||
-Irian Jaya | Present | Native | |||||
-Java | Present | Native | |||||
-Lesser Sunda Islands | Present | Native | Bali. | ||||
-Maluku Islands | Present | Native | |||||
-Sumatra | Present | Native | |||||
Japan | Present | Native | |||||
Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
-Peninsular Malaysia | Present | Native | |||||
-Sarawak | Present | Native | |||||
Maldives | Present | Native | |||||
Myanmar | Present | Native | Bago, Yangon | ||||
Pakistan | Present | Native | Including Sind | ||||
Philippines | Present | Native | |||||
Saudi Arabia | Present | Native/Introduced status uncertain. | |||||
Singapore | Present | Introduced | |||||
Sri Lanka | Present | Native | |||||
Taiwan | Present | Native | |||||
Thailand | Present | Native | |||||
Turkey | Present | Native | |||||
Uzbekistan | Present | Introduced | |||||
Vietnam | Present | Native | |||||
Yemen | Present | Native | Including Socotra. | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
Russia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Southern Russia | Present | Introduced | Krasnodar | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Anguilla | Present | Introduced | |||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bahamas | Present | Introduced | |||||
Barbados | Present | Introduced | |||||
Belize | Present | Introduced | |||||
Bermuda | Present | Introduced | |||||
British Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Virgin Gorda | ||||
Cayman Islands | Present | Introduced | |||||
Cuba | Present | Introduced | |||||
Curaçao | Present | Introduced | |||||
Dominican Republic | Present | Introduced | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Introduced | |||||
Guatemala | Present | Introduced | |||||
Haiti | Present | Introduced | |||||
Jamaica | Present | Introduced | |||||
Martinique | Present | Introduced | |||||
Montserrat | Present | Introduced | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Introduced | and Viegues Island. | ||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Lucia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Present | Introduced | |||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Introduced | Naturalized | Naturalized. St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas. | |||
United States | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Florida | Present | Introduced | |||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present | Native | |||||
-Northern Territory | Present | Native | |||||
-Queensland | Present | Native | |||||
Guam | Present | ||||||
Northern Mariana Islands | Present | Agrihan, Saipan, Tinian Is. | |||||
Papua New Guinea | Present | Native | Including Bismarck Archipelago. | ||||
South America |
|||||||
French Guiana | Present | Introduced | Cultivated, perhaps escaped. | ||||
Guyana | Present | Introduced | Cultivated, perhaps escaped. | ||||
Peru | Present | Introduced | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Introduced | Cultivated, perhaps escaped (Funk et al. 2007). |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageI. tinctoria was widely used as a textile dye and a medicine for centuries in Southeast Asia and India, although its origin remains obscure; indigo dye from several Indigofera species, mostly I. tinctoria, was found on the remains of an Egyptian mummy dating back to 2300 BC and the species has also been found in Inca tombs (MacLeod, 1997; Armitage, 2008). Pliny wrote of an Indicum plant that possessed similar properties to the modern Indigo, and in the 15th century, the Venetians were in the habit of receiving Indigo from the East via Alexandria, Egypt (Macfadyen, 1837). After the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, the Dutch were supposedly the first to import indigo directly into Europe in the middle of the 16th century, although “it was long, however, where it came into general use as a dye, and there appears to have existed against it a very unaccountable prejudice. It…. was prohibited in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and also in Saxony by the Elector, who described it in his edict as a corrosive substance, and fit food only for the devil” (Macfadyen, 1837).
I. tinctoria was reported (as syn. I. sumatrana) to have been introduced to Bengal, India in the mid-1700s for dye production, “either from Malabar or directly from Malaya, and proving a more satisfactory plant than either the Egyptian or the Indian kinds, has spread westward through Upper India as far as the Punjab and more recently southward to Madras. From Bengal it was taken to the West Indies” (University of Calcutta, 1902). Macfadyen (1837) writes that sometime after Queen Elizabeth’s reign indigo’s importance “came to be understood, and the cultivation of the plants which yield it was introduced into the West Indies, and into Mexico, and followed up with such success, that the market of Europe was for a long time principally supplied from these countries” instead of from the East, with a large portion being furnished by Jamaica.
The exact date of introduction of I. tinctoria to the West Indies is uncertain, but it was in Jamaica by 1837 (Macfadyen, 1837) and as of 1876 the species was recorded as ‘cultivated in former times but now only found wild or naturalized’ in St. Croix and other Virgin Islands (Eggers, 1876, 1879). It was included in an 1893 flora of St. Vincent (Kew Bulletin, 1893). The species occurred in Saint Kitts by 1901, Cuba by 1909, Curacao by 1914, and by 1924 it was known to occur in Vieques, St. Thomas, Florida, Hispaniola and from St. Martin to Grenada (Boldingh, 1914; Britton and Wilson, 1924). The first record of the species on the West Indies island of Navassa was a 1929 visual report by Erik Eckman (Zanoni and Buck, 1999). Specimens were collected from Martinique in 1885, Montserrat in 1907, Puerto Rico in 1914, Haiti in 1920, and St. Kitts-Nevis and St. Martin in 1932 (US National Herbarium). I. tinctoria was also known to be cultivated in Guatemala by 1854 as an alternative indigo source to the East Indies (Pereira, 1854).
I. tinctoria is very similar to I. suffruticosa and I. arrecta (see ‘Similarities to Other Species’ section), and in past records these three species have sometimes been confused. For example, Britton’s 1918 flora of Bermuda identifies the I. tinctoria of Jones, LeFroy and HB Small as I. suffruticosa, the only indigo species to be listed in Britton’s flora (Britton, 1918).
Risk of Introduction
Top of pageBecause I. tinctoria was widely introduced for dye production in tropical regions around the world and escaped from cultivation, it is now considered an agricultural and environmental weed, with the potential to threaten native ecosystems (Randall, 2012). It can tolerate a wide range of precipitation (annual rainfall 640-4100 mm/year), requires little attention after sprouting, and has widely spreading branches that could crowd out other species with its shade (Duke 1981). It spreads by seeds, which are numerous (up to 15 per pod). The risk of introduction of I. tinctoria is moderate to high based on current literature, but more data and research is required.
Habitat
Top of pageI. tinctoria has been widely cultivated in tropical regions, usually between 0 and 300 m altitude, and grows well in brushwood, bush margins, grassy fields, and secondary forest, seasonally flooded grassy fields and sandy coasts and along roadsides and riverbanks, although the species cannot tolerate excessive water or heat (Duke, 1981; Seidemann, 2005). Aside from cultivated areas, the species was also common in thickets and roadsides in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (Britton and Wilson, 1924). In Madagascar, I. tinctoria is widely naturalized around villages, roadsides, disturbed areas, and grassland, at altitudes up to 800 m (Puy et al, 2002).
Habitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageGenetics
The chromosome count for I. tinctoria is 2n=16 (Duke, 1981; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014).
Reproductive Biology
Sedimann (2005) states: Seeds germinate in about 4-5 days. Plants may start to flower 3-4 months after sowing. Like many other leguminous plants, I. tinctoria forms root nodules with nitrogen-fixing capacity with e.g. Rhizobium indigoferae. The total lifespan for dye crops is 2-3 years when grown as a ratoon crop. Propagation is by seed, of which 20-30 kg/ha is needed. The seeds commonly have a hard seed coat and soaking overnight in water or scarification with sulphuric acid can improve germination to over 90%. The crop normally requires little attention after sowing. Weeding is done when needed.
Associations
Like several other members of the Indigofera genus, I. tinctoria has been cultivated as a green manure due to its capability of nitrogen-fixing symbiosis with rhizobia and bradyrhizobia, including Rhizobium indigoferae (Duke, 1981; Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto, 1991; Seidemann 2005).
Environmental Requirements
I. tinctoria occurs at 0-1000(-1250) m altitude, in regions with an annual rainfall of 500-1500(-4100) mm and average annual temperature of 23 degrees Celsius. It cannot tolerate continuous rain, excessive waterlogging and flooding, high winds and hailstorms, and can wither under excessive heat and hot winds (Duke, 1981; Seidemann, 2005). From a mean of 13 cases, I. tinctoria tolerates c. 15.2 dm of annual rainfall, 23.1 degrees C annual temperature, and c. 6.5 pH soil (Duke, 1981). It requires little or no shade in order to thrive; according to Macfadyen (1837), the quality of indigo dye obtained from plants grown in a wet climate was considered “small in quantity and inferior in quality”, and shade had a negative effect on crops so that “it is evident, that Indigo requires much and continued sunshine to render its juices rich”.
[Rainfall, temperature and pH levels in tables are from Duke, 1981].
Climate
Top of pageClimate | Status | Description | Remark |
---|---|---|---|
Af - Tropical rainforest climate | Preferred | > 60mm precipitation per month | |
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Preferred | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | |
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | Preferred | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | |
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Tolerated | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Mean annual rainfall | 640 | 4100 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
- seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- light
- medium
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pageSeveral fungi are known to attack indigo plants: Cercosporella indigofericola, Cladosporium indigoferae, Colletotrichum indigoferae, Nectria cinnabarina, Parodiella perisporioides, Phymatotrichopsis omnivora, Ravenelia indigoferae, Ravenelia laevis, and Uromyces indigoferae. Plants are also susceptible to blights, green caterpillars, grasshoppers, locusts, and other insects that feed on the leaves and flowers, especially when plants are young. Plants are attacked by the nematode Heterodera glycines (Duke, 1981).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Top of pageI. tinctoria spreads by seeds (Duke, 1981). Dispersal by humans is primarily through intentional introduction as it has been cultivated for indigo dye production, for environmental purposes and for traditional/folk medicine. There is also accidental introduction as a cultivation escape, as well as by animals, as the leaves are rich in potash and the plant reportedly eaten by cattle in some places (Duke, 1981). I. tinctoria can also spread via water, as it can grow on sandy coastlines and riverbanks.
Pathway Causes
Top of pageCause | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Digestion and excretion | Said to be eaten by cattle | Yes | Yes | Duke (1981) |
Habitat restoration and improvement | Widely used as cover and green manure crop | Yes | Yes | Duke (1981); Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto (1991); Seidemann (2005) |
Industrial purposes | Historically important as a primary source of indigo dye and introduced widely for that purpose | Yes | Yes | Duke (1981); MacFadyen (1837); Seidemann (2005) |
Medicinal use | Tradtitional medicines | Yes | Duke (1981) |
Pathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Machinery and equipment | Yes | Yes | ||
Soil, sand and gravel | Yes | Yes | ||
Water | Yes | Yes |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Negative |
Environmental Impact
Top of pageI. tinctoria has a positive impact on soil quality, serving as both a green manure and a cover crop, and has been widely used as such around the world. Using it as a green manure for rice increases yield while reducing the need to supply extensive nitrogen fertilizer to about half. The reside remaining after indigo extraction is also applied as manure. I. tinctoria is also a good N catch crop, reducing the amount of fertilizer NO3 leaching to the groundwater. However, the species possesses traits that pose a threat to native flora, as it is fast-growing, disperses easily by seeds and is easily transported by humans and animals.
Social Impact
Top of pageI. tinctoria has been used as a hair dye and there have been concerns of its possible harm to human health. In April 2004, the Scientific Committee on Cosmetic Products and Non-Food Products identified the need for a complete safety dossier of the species, and a review of its potential toxicity was conducted by the EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety which concluded in 2012 that further research is required, as currently there is insufficient data (SCCS, 2012).
Risk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Has a broad native range
- Abundant in its native range
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
- Fast growing
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
- Modification of nutrient regime
- Monoculture formation
- Reduced native biodiversity
- Threat to/ loss of endangered species
- Threat to/ loss of native species
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Competition - shading
- Competition - smothering
- Rapid growth
- Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Top of pageI. tinctoria was once the world’s primary source of Indian indigo, but was eventually replaced by I. arrecta, before the rise of synthetic indigo production replaced plant-based indigo dye (Duke, 1981). It has also been used as a cover crop in coffee plantations and rice fields, as green manure for crops such as maize, cotton, and sugarcane, as well as an occasional fodder crop, contrasting with the poisonous nature of some other members of the Indigofera genus (Duke, 1981; Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto, 1991). Although now made of synthetic dyes, painters in the past used I. tinctoria for the blue in their watercolours (Macfadyen, 1837). In Madagascar, the species was previously cultivated and is still used as a dye plant, while the pounded leaves are used as a compress or as a herbal tea (Puy et al., 2002). Other folk medicinal uses include the juice of the leaves as a prophylactic against hydrophobia, and as a decoction for blennorrhagia; plant extract as treatment for epilepsy, nervous disorders, bronchitis, and as an ointment for sores, old ulcers, and haemorrhoids; and roots for hepatitis, scorpion bites, and urinary complaints (Duke, 1981; Lemmens and Wulijarni-Soetjipto, 1991).
Uses List
Top of pageEnvironmental
- Erosion control or dune stabilization
- Soil improvement
Materials
- Dye/tanning
- Green manure
Medicinal, pharmaceutical
- Traditional/folklore
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageSiedemann (2005), gives the following text on related species: “For indigo production several Indigofera species are used, but there are 3 closely related, major ones: I. tinctoria, I. arrecta, which originates from tropical Africa but is now distributed pantropically, and I. suffruticosa, originating from tropical America and now locally cultivated elsewhere in the tropics, including Africa and Madagascar but not in tropical East Africa. The origin and identity of Indigofera plants cultivated for dye production is often obscure as a result of introduction, selection and the close affinity of species. I. arrecta is sometimes difficult to separate from I. tinctoria. The latter usually differs in its larger and less numerous leaflets and longer fruits containing more seeds. In East Africa, but not West Africa, I. arrecta generally occurs at higher altitudes (1000-2000 m) than I. tinctoria (below 1000 m). I. suffruticosa differs from I. tinctoria by its rather straight, short, 10-15 mm long, red-brown pods and short (c. 3 mm long) stamens”. In short, “Indigofera tinctoria can be distinguished from the related I. arrecta and I. longiracemosa by its longer, indehiscent pods with slight constrictions between the seeds, and its slightly larger flowers with a slightly longer staminal tube” (Puy et al., 2002).
Intermediate specimens between I. tinctoria, I. arrecta, and I. suffruticosa have been found, and are possibly hybrids. “Based on the form of the fruits, 2 varieties are distinguished in Indigofera tinctoria: var. tinctoria has straight or slightly curved pods (not more than 50 degrees), [whereas] var. arcuate JB Gillett has pods curved more than 50 degrees, often semi-circular and sometimes forming a ring” (Seidemann, 2005).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Top of pageFurther data and research are needed to gauge the impact of I. tinctoria on native flora and natural communities, and the extent of the species’ potential for invasiveness, especially considering its widespread distribution across tropical regions. There is currently a lack of information on managing and controlling the species in natural areas.
References
Top of pageAcevedo-Rodríguez P, 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 78:1-581.
Acevedo-Rodríguez P; Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Armitage AM, 2008. Herbaceous perennial plants: A treatise on their identification, culture, and garden attributes. Champaign, IL, USA: Stipes Publishing.
Bisby FA; Buckingham J; Harborne JB; Southon IW; Zarucchi JL, 1994. Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae.
Boldingh I, 1914. The flora of the Dutch West Indian Islands: The Flora of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire. Leyden, Netherlands: EJ. Brill, 244 pp. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/20608
Britton NL, 1918. Flora of Bermuda. New York, USA: Charles Scribner's Sons. 585 pp.
Britton NL; Wilson P, 1924. Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin islands, Volume V, Botany of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. New York Academy of Sciences, New York.
Eggers HFA, 1876. The St Croix's Flora. Washington, USA: Government Printing Office, 158 pp.
Eggers HFA, 1879. The Flora of St. Croix and the Virgin Islands. Washington, USA: Washington Government Printing Office, 148 pp.
Ekman EL, 1929. Plants of Navassa Island, West Indies. Arkansas Botany, 22A(16):1-12, pls. 1-2.
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora of Pakistan, 2014. Flora of Pakistan/Pakistan Plant Database (PPD). Tropicos website St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
ILDIS, 2014. International Legume Database and Information Service. Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Kew Bulletin, 1893. Flora of St. Vincent and Adjacent Islets. Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 81:231-296.
Kress WJ; Defilipps RA; Farr E; Kyi DYY, 2003. A checklist of the trees, shrubs, herbs, and climbers of Myanmar. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 45:1-590.
MacFadyen J, 1837. The flora of Jamaica: A description of the plants of that island. London, UK: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman, 351 pp.
MacLeod MJ, 1997. Dyes. In: Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures [ed. by Selin, H.]. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic, 251-252.
Oviedo Prieto R; Herrera Oliver P; Caluff MG, et al. , 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
Pereira J; Carson J, 1852. The elements of materia medica and therapeutics. Philadelphia, USA: Blanchard and Lea.
PROTA, 2014. PROTA4U web database. Grubben GJH, Denton OA, eds. Wageningen, Netherlands: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp
Puy DJdu; Labat JN; Rabevohitra R; Villiers JF; Bosser J; Moat J, 2002. The Leguminosae of Madagascar. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, 737 pp.
Randall RP, 2012. A Global Compendium of Weeds. Perth, Australia: Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, 1124 pp. http://www.cabi.org/isc/FullTextPDF/2013/20133109119.pdf
SCCS, 2012. Opinion on Indigofera tinctoria, Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety, 16th Plenary Meeting, 18 September 2012. http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/consumer_safety/docs/sccs_o_110.pdf
Seidemann J, 2005. World spice plants: Economic usage, botany, taxonomony. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 286-287.
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
University of Calcutta, 1902. The Calcutta Review, 229(July 1902):115.
USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
Wagner WL; Herbst DR; Tornabene MW; Weitzman A; Lorence DH, 2012. Flora of Micronesia website. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/micronesia/index.htm
Zanoni TA; Buck WR, 1999. Navassa Island and its flora 2- Checklist of the vascular plants. Brittonia, 51:389-394.
Distribution References
Bisby FA, Buckingham J, Harborne JB, Southon IW, Zarucchi JL, 1994. Phytochemical Dictionary of the Leguminosae.,
Boldingh I, 1914. The flora of the Dutch West Indian Islands: The Flora of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire., Leyden, Netherlands: EJ Brill. 244 pp. http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/20608
Britton N L, 1918. Flora of Bermuda. New York, USA: C. Scribner's Sons.
CABI, Undated. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora of Pakistan, 2014. Flora of Pakistan/Pakistan Plant Database (PPD)., St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
ILDIS, 2014. International Legume Database and Information Service., Reading, UK: School of Plant Sciences, University of Reading. http://www.ildis.org/
Kress WJ, Defilipps RA, Farr E, Kyi DYY, 2003. A checklist of the trees, shrubs, herbs, and climbers of Myanmar. In: Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 45 1-590.
Puy DJdu, Labat JN, Rabevohitra R, Villierhttp://s JF, Bohttp://shttp://ser J, Moat J, 2002. The Leguminohttp://sae of Madagahttp://scar., Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardenhttp://s. 737 pp. http://s
USDA-ARS, 2013. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Wagner WL, Herbst DR, Tornabene MW, Weitzman A, Lorence DH, 2012. Flora of Micronesia website., Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/pacificislandbiodiversity/micronesia/index.htm
Links to Websites
Top of pageWebsite | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Contributors
Top of page08/03/2014 Original text by:
Marianne Jennifer Datiles, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
Pedro Acevedo-Rodríguez, Department of Botany-Smithsonian NMNH, Washington DC, USA
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