Hevea brasiliensis (rubber)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Seedlings

Nursery seedlings of Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis).

©AgrEvo

Plantation

Leaf fall in plantation during February-March, Perak, Malaysia.

Lai Hoe Ang

Tapping

Tapping of mature Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).

©AgrEvo

Foliage

Leaves of H. brasiliensis turn red before shedding.

Lai Hoe Ang

Latex flowing

Latex flowing from mature Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). (Note collection apparatus)

©AgrEvo

Seed capsules and seeds

A. seed capsule B. seeds

Lai Hoe Ang

H. brasiliensis - line drawing

H. brasiliensis: 1, flowering branch; 2, fruit. Reproduced from the series 'Plant Resources of South-East Asia', by kind permission of the PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia.

PROSEA Foundation

Latex collection

Lai Hoe Ang

Line artwork

1. tree habit 2. flowering twig 3. fruit

PROSEA Foundation

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Muell. Arg.

Preferred Common Name

rubber

Other Scientific Names

Siphonia brasiliensis Willd. ex A. Juss.

International Common Names

English: Para rubber
Spanish: caucho; hevea; hule; jebe; siringa
French: arbre a caoutchouc; caoutchouc; caoutchouc de Para; hévéa
Arabic: lastik barâ
Portuguese: seringueira

Local Common Names

Brunei Darussalam: kayu getah; kayu keret; pokok getah para
Cambodia: kausuu
Germany: Heveakautschukbaum; Parakautschukbaum
Indonesia: karet; kayu getah; kayu keret; pokok getah para
Italy: albero del caucciu; evea
Laos: jaang
Malaysia: getah asli; kayu getah; kayu keret; pokok getah para
Myanmar: kyetpaung
Netherlands: Rubberboom
Sweden: brasilianskt Gummitraed
Thailand: yang phara
Vietnam: cao su

EPPO code

HVEBR (Hevea brasiliensis)

Summary of Invasiveness

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The following summary is from Witt and Luke (2017):

Description

Large evergreen tree (to 40 m tall) with a straight trunk (50 cm in diameter), branching at top to form a dense canopy.

Origin

Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela.

Reason for Introduction

Timber and rubber.

Invades

Roadsides, disturbed areas and forest gaps/edges.

Impacts

Introduced as a plantation crop, it has escaped cultivation and established dense stands, to the possible detriment of native plant and animal species.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Euphorbiales
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Genus: Hevea
Species: Hevea brasiliensis

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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At present some 10 species are distinguished in Hevea, including H. brasiliensis, H. benthamiana, H. camargoana, H. camporum, H. guianensis, H. microphylla, H. nitida, H. pauciflora, H. rigidifolia and H. spruceana. Only H. brasiliensis, H. guianensis and H. benthamiana yield usable rubber, the latex of other species being undesirable due to its high resin and low rubber content. However, other Hevea species possess desirable traits which could be used for breeding purposes (for example, better wood strength, disease resistance and dwarfing). Dwarfing is found in H. camargoana and H. nitida var. toxicodendroides. H. microphylla is unique in Hevea in having pistillate flowers with a conspicuously swollen torus.

Description

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A tree, 30-40 m tall, about 15 m when cultivated. Root system massive, taproot 1-2 m long, laterals spreading to about 10 m. Trunk cylindrical, bark smooth to slightly corky, pale to dark brown. Branching varying considerably; shape conical with light branches emerging from a prominent main stem, broom- or fan-shaped with four to five heavy branches coming out of a main stem, or stem leader dominated by a diffuse array of heavy branches. Leaves alternate or subopposite at apex of shoot, trifoliolate, petioles long with apical glands; stipules deciduous. Leaflets elliptic or obovate, 4-50 x 1.5-15 cm, entire and pinnately veined. Flowers in axillary panicles on basal part of new flush, unisexual, with bell-shaped, 5-lobed perianth, bright yellow on ripening; male flowers smaller than and outnumbering the female flowers, attached at the base of the lateral branchlets of the inflorescence, with a staminal column with 10 sessile anthers spirally arranged; female flowers located at the apices of the main and lateral branchlets of the inflorescence, with a green disk at base and a superior, 3-celled ovary terminated by 3 sessile sticky stigmas. Fruit a 3-lobed capsule, 3-5 cm in diameter, light brown when mature. One seed per carpel, ovoid, about 1 x 2 cm.

Distribution

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The centre of origin of natural rubber covers part of the Amazon Basin, parts of Matto Grosso (Upper Orinoco) and the Guianas. Geographically, wild and semi-wild Hevea is found in the northern part of South America from Brazil to Venezuela and from Colombia to Peru and Bolivia.

Natural rubber was first introduced into South-East Asia from the Neotropics in 1876. Early attempts to encourage its planting were not well received. However, with the arrival and expansion of the motor car industry and the increased demand for natural rubber, it soon grew into an important plantation crop in a number of tropical and subtropical countries. Today, rubber is grown in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and China in Asia, as well as Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon, Liberia and Gabon in Africa. In South America, particularly in Brazil, despite the massive opening up of new land for rubber cultivation, production continues to be hampered by the major leaf disease South American leaf blight (Microcyclus ulei).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	Invasive	Planted	Reference	Notes
Africa
Cameroon	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 52,000 MT (F)
Central African Republic	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 1,000 MT (F)
Congo, Republic of the	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 1,350 MT (F)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present				FAO (2009) Tuo et al. (2013)	Natural rubber production (2008) 188,532 MT (F)
Gabon	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 12,000 MT (F)
Ghana	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 13,500 MT (*)
Guinea	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 13,900 MT (*)
Guinea-Bissau	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 0 MT (M)
Liberia	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 81,000 MT (*)
Mali	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 0 MT (M)
Nigeria	Present				FAO (2009) Akpaja et al. (2015)	Natural rubber production (2008) 143,000 MT (F)
Sierra Leone	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
Tanzania	Present	Introduced	Naturalized		Witt and Luke (2017) CABI (Undated)	Naturalized
Uganda	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
Asia
Bangladesh	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 5,300 MT (F)
Brunei	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 220 MT (F)
Cambodia	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 31,676 MT
China	Present				FAO (2009) Zeng HuiCai et al. (2009) Cai et al. (2014) Li et al. (2014) Cai et al. (2015) Cai et al. (2016) Huang et al. (2016) Liu et al. (2016) Liu et al. (2016a) Yang et al. (2016) Liu et al. (2017) Jiang et al. (2018) Li YaJin et al. (2018) Li You et al. (2018) Shi et al. (2019)	Natural rubber production (2008) 565,000 MT (F)
India	Present				FAO (2009) Manju et al. (2015)	Natural rubber production (2008) 819,000 MT (F)
-Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Assam	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Karnataka	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Kerala	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Tamil Nadu	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
Indonesia	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 2,921,872 MT
-Irian Jaya	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Java	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Maluku Islands	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Sulawesi	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Sumatra	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
Malaysia	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 1,072,400 MT
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Sabah	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
-Sarawak	Present			Planted	CABI (Undated a)
Myanmar	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 45,000 MT (F)
Philippines	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 411,044 MT
Singapore	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 0 MT (M)
Sri Lanka	Present				FAO (2009) Galanihe et al. (2010)	Natural rubber production (2008) 129,240 MT
Thailand	Present				FAO (2009) Laohasakul et al. (2017)	Natural rubber production (2008) 3,193,213 MT
Vietnam	Present				FAO (2009) Tam et al. (2016)	Natural rubber production (2008) 659,600 MT
North America
Costa Rica	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 0 MT (M)
Dominican Republic	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 12 MT (F)
Guatemala	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 70,000 MT (F)
Mexico	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 27,709 MT (F)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present				Constantino (2002)
Oceania
Papua New Guinea	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 4,700 MT (F)
South America
Bolivia	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 12,000 MT (F)
Brazil	Present				FAO (2009) Oliveira et al. (2008)	Natural rubber production (2008) 114,000 MT (F)
-Acre	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Alagoas	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Amapa	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Amazonas	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Bahia	Present				Oliveira et al. (2008)
-Ceara	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Espirito Santo	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Fernando de Noronha	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Goias	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Maranhao	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Mato Grosso	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Mato Grosso do Sul	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Minas Gerais	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Para	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Paraiba	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Parana	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Pernambuco	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Piaui	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Rio de Janeiro	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Rondonia	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Roraima	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Santa Catarina	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Sao Paulo	Present				CABI (Undated a)
-Sergipe	Present				CABI (Undated a)
Colombia	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 0 MT (M)
Ecuador	Present				FAO (2009)	Natural rubber production (2008) 13,750 MT (F)
Paraguay	Present				CABI (Undated a)
Peru	Present				FAO (2009) Constantino (2002)	Natural rubber production (2008) 0 MT (M)
Uruguay	Present				CABI (Undated a)
Venezuela	Present				Constantino (2002)

Biology and Ecology

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Growth and Development

Germination of seeds usually takes place 7-10 days after sowing. Seedlings and buddings exhibit growth periodicity. Terminal buds of main stems produce long internodes with leaves clustered towards the end of them. The shoot pushes out vertically, slowly for 2-3 days, then rapidly before tailing off for 1-2 days. The energy for growth is then diverted into leaf development. Leaf petioles and leaf blades show the same kind of growth as the shoot, but the blades go on growing for 3-4 days longer than the petioles. When their growth ceases, the blades change colour from dark reddish to light green, and continue to droop. During the next stage the leaves rise to the horizontal position after which they become dark green. A complete cycle takes about 36 days, 18 for extension growth and 18 for leaf development. Subsequent growth proceeds in similar cycles, and as the plant grows, the leaves appear in whorls.

Branching begins about 1 year after sowing, depending on the clone. The more vigorous clones branch early whereas the less vigorous can take up to a year. The branches appear sequentially and the number ranges from 4-8 in one storey. They emerge from axillary buds. One-year-old seedlings may already be 2.5 m tall. After the first year of growth, the plants will then go through a phase of rapid vegetative growth for the next 4 years before they start flowering and fruiting.

After branching, girth development starts and growth periodicity is less pronounced. Girth development decreases when trees are tapped. To prevent wind damage a rather short tree with a symmetrical crown starting about 3 m above ground level is preferred. When trees reach a certain age they partly or completely shed their leaves, usually once a year. The intensity of leaf shedding, usually called wintering, depends on climatic conditions and varies with clone. A dry period of 1 month or longer causes partial or complete leaf fall. This causes a drop in latex production especially during refoliation. Along with new leaves, flowers are produced. Both self- and cross-pollination are carried out by small insects. Self-incompatibility occurs in some clones. Only a small proportion of female flowers set fruit and afterwards many of the fruitlets are shed. Even with hand pollination no more than five of the pollinated female flowers develop into mature fruit. This development takes about 5 months. Seeds are viable only for a few days. Storage in sealed containers with damp sawdust can extend the viability period to 1 month.

Ecology

Rubber is a crop of the lowland tropics grown between 6°N and 6°S. Attempts to cultivate rubber as far south as the Sao Paolo region in Brazil and as far north as Mexico and Guangdong Province in China have met with some degree of success. The optimum day temperature is 26-28°C. Preferably rubber should not be planted at altitudes above 400-500 m because the low ambient temperature retards girth growth, delays tapping, and reduces latex production.

The annual rainfall requirement ranges from 2000 to 3000 mm with 170-200 rainy days. A well-distributed annual rainfall of 1500 mm is considered the lower limit for commercial production. In Indonesia, the best areas for rubber production have annual rainfall totals as high as 400 mm. In high rainfall areas, soils should have good internal drainage. A large number of rainy days, especially with rain in the morning, is undesirable because it disrupts the tapping schedule. Rubber can also tolerate a 2-3 month drought period in some areas. A dry period of 1 month or longer causes partial or complete leaf fall. Wind is an important factor because it may snap trunks and branches.

Owing to its extensive root system rubber needs a well-drained, root-penetrable soil, at least 1 m deep with an adequate moisture storage capacity. Temporary waterlogging with flowing water causes little damage. It can be grown in soils ranging from sandy to red lateritic and yellow podzols, young volcanic soils, alluvial clays and peat soil. Rubber is less demanding in terms of soil fertility and topography than other tree crops such as oil palm and cocoa, and is often planted on land which is not suitable for these crops.

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
12	-35	0	450

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Absolute minimum temperature (ºC)	10
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	26	27
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month (ºC)	24	33
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month (ºC)	20	32

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Dry season duration	0	3	number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
Mean annual rainfall	1500	3600	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Uniform

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

acid

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Uses

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The rubber tree, when tapped, produces a milky liquid (latex). The latex can be processed into latex concentrate, sheet rubber or block rubber; it is marketed to manufacturers as natural raw rubber.

The main users of natural raw rubber are tyre manufacturers who consume 60-70% of the total world volume of natural rubber produced. The balance is divided among manufacturers of rubber car components (for example, producing engine mountings, bushes, weather strips, V-belts, hoses and joint rings), manufacturers of engineering components (building mounts, anti-vibration mounts, dock fenders, flooring and high-quality sheeting), and manufacturers of consumer products (such as footwear, sports goods, toys, gloves, latex threads, catheters, swimming caps and condoms).

When felled for replanting, the rubber tree is also sawn to give rubber wood (timber). With proper treatment, it can be used for high-value-added products like furniture, particleboeard, parquet flooring and many other wood products. Rubber wood can also be converted into fuel charcoal.

Seeds contain a semi-drying oil that can be used in making paints and soap and has some potential as a local fuel.

Uses List

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Environmental

Agroforestry
Revegetation

Fuels

Charcoal

Materials

Carved material
Essential oils
Rubber/latex
Wood/timber

Wood Products

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Charcoal

Containers

Crates
Pallets

Sawn or hewn building timbers

Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
Flooring
For light construction
Wall panelling

Wood residues

Wood-based materials

Fibreboard
Flakeboard
Laminated veneer lumber
Laminated wood
Medium density fibreboard
Particleboard
Wood cement

Woodware

Industrial and domestic woodware
Tool handles

Bibliography

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Ng KF, Stur WW, Shelton HM, 1977. New forage species for integration of sheep in rubber plantations. Journal of Agricultural Science, 128(3):347-355.

Ong SH, Mohd Noor AG, Tan AM, Tan H, 1983. New Hevea germplasm - its introduction and potential. In: Proceedings RRIM Planters' Conference. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

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RRIM, 1998. Annual report 1997. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia.

RRIM, 1998. Symposium on natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Volume I. General, soils and fertilization, and breeding and selection sessions, Ho Minh City, Vietnam, 14-15 October 1997. Brickendonbury, UK: International Rubber Research and Development Board.

Samat MSA, Shelton HM, Mullen BF, Shelton HM, 1995. Biological modelling of rubber and forage productivity. ACIAR, Australia. Integration of ruminants into plantation systems in southeast Asia: Proceedings of a workshop at Lake Toba, North Sumatra, Indonesia, 9 13 September 1994. ACIAR Proceedings, 64:72-78.

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References

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Clement-Demange A, Chapuset T, Legnate H, Costes E, Doumbia A, Obouayeba S, Nicolas D 1995. Wind damage: the possibilities of an integrated research for improving the prevention of risks and the resistance of clones in the rubber tree. Symposium on physiological and molecular aspects of the breeding of Hevea brasiliensis, Penang, Malaysia, 6-7 November, 1995:182-199

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Ikram A, Jensen ES, Jakobsen I, 1994. No significant transfer of N and P from Pueraria phaseoloides to Hevea brasiliensis via hyphal links of arbuscular mycorrhiza. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 26(11):1541-1547

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Jayasinghe CK, 2001. Check list of rubber pathogens in Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka: National Science Foundation, 48 pp

Jayasinghe CK, Silva WPK, 1994. Foot canker and sudden wilt of Hevea brasiliensis associated with Nattrassia mangiferae. Plant Pathology, 43(5):938-940

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Kliwon S, Iskandar MI, Sutigno P, 1992. The effect of veneer preservation with BFCA compound on the bonding strength of plywood made from rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis). [Pengaruh pengawetan venir dengan senyawa BFCA terhadap keteguhan rekat kayu lapis dari kayu karet (Hevea brasiliensis).] Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 10(3):97-101; English tables; 8 ref

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Medrado MJS, Appezzato-da-Gloria B, Costa JD, 1995. Anatomical changes in rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis clone RRIM 600) cuttings in response to different rooting techniques. Scientia Agricola, 52(1):89-95

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