Hibiscus trionum (Venice mallow)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Young plant

Young plant of H. trionum (note matchstick for scale).

John T. Swarbrick

Seedling

John T. Swarbrick

Maturing plant

John T. Swarbrick

Flowering plant

Mature flowering plant of H. trionum (leaves of other species present).

John T. Swarbrick

Floweing plant

Mature flowering plant (40-70 cm tall).

©AgrEvo

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Hibiscus trionum

Preferred Common Name

Venice mallow

Other Scientific Names

Ketmia trionum Scop.
Trionum diffusum Moench.

International Common Names

English: bladder hibiscus; bladder ketmia; flower of an hour; ketmia
Spanish: aurora comun; flor de una hora
French: ketmia d'Afrique
Arabic: shebbet

Local Common Names

Germany: Eibisch, Stunden-; Stundenblume, Gelbe
Italy: ibisco a tre foglie
Madagascar: telorirana
Netherlands: drieurenbloem
Saudi Arabia: teel shataani; teel sheitani
South Africa: iyeza-lentshulube; lefefane; lolwane; terblansbossie; uurblom
Turkey: seytan keneviri
Zambia: kombwe; likulu; lumanda; mikukwa; sansamwa

EPPO code

HIBTR (Hibiscus trionum)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Hibiscus
Species: Hibiscus trionum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Hibiscus trionum is the widely accepted and commonly used name for this tropical weedy species. Hibiscus is an ancient Greek name for mallow (a related genus), and trionum describes the tri-partite leaf.

Description

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H. trionum is a spreading to erect annual herb, usually 40-70 cm tall.

The root system usually consists of a strong white taproot with many slender laterals in the upper layers of the soil.

The plants are usually strongly branched at the base, giving rise to several ascending, rather woody stems. The stems are green to brown or purplish, striate and variously hairy or bristly.

The leaves occur singly along the stems on 1-6 cm long bristly petioles. Each leaf is palmately divided into three (occasionally five or seven) segments, each very variable in shape and size but usually shallowly to very deeply lobed, 2-8 cm long and hairy or bristly. The leaves may be paler below than above and have pellucid glands.

The flowers, 2.5-4.0 cm in diameter, occur singly in the upper leaf axils, on bristly 2-5 cm long pedicels. Each flower consists of a ring of eight to ten slender bracteoles outside the five inflated hairy, green to purplish sepals, five oval white, cream, pink or yellow petals, each with a dark red to purple basal spot, and a central column bearing numerous stamens and ending in five globular stigmas.

The bristly, oval to spherical fruits develop inside the inflated papery sepals, and at maturity dry out and split into five to release the numerous seeds. The seeds are rough, oval, flattened, dark brown to black and 2-3 mm long.

Seedlings have epigeal germination and may be tinged with purple. The hypocotyl is erect, hairy and about 2 cm long, and the cotyledons oval and strongly 3-veined on hairy petioles. The juvenile leaves are undivided, oval and strongly veined.

Distribution

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The origin of H. trionum is uncertain, and is difficult to ascertain as the species has now become widespread. It is distributed primarily in tropical and subtropical regions but has also spread to temperate regions in Europe and North America.

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 25 Feb 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Reference	Notes
Africa
Botswana	Present	Wells et al. (1986) Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997) CABI (Undated)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Holm et al. (1997)
Egypt	Present	Gab-Alla et al. (1985) Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Eswatini	Present	Wells et al. (1986) Holm et al. (1991)
Ethiopia	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Gambia	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Ghana	Present	Holm et al. (1991)
Kenya	Present	Ivens (1968)
Madagascar	Present	Holm et al. (1997)
Mali	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Hutchinson et al., 1958
Mozambique	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Excell, 1961
Namibia	Present	Wells et al. (1986)
Senegal	Present	Holm et al. (1991) CABI (Undated)
South Africa	Present	Wells et al. (1986) Villiers (1987) Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Sudan	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Tanzania	Present	Holm et al. (1997)
Zambia	Present	Holm et al. (1991) CABI (Undated)
Zimbabwe	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997) CABI (Undated)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
China	Present, Widespread	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997) CABI (Undated)
India	Present	Rao and Ramayya (1981) Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Iran	Present	Mirkamali (1979) Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997) Darabi et al. (2015)
Iraq	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Israel	Present	Holm et al. (1991)
Japan	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Jordan	Present	Holm et al. (1991)
Kazakhstan	Present	Kurkova (1980)
Kuwait	Present	Mathew et al. (2012)
Lebanon	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
North Korea	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Pakistan	Present	Holm et al. (1997) Khan et al. (2012)
Saudi Arabia	Present	Holm et al. (1997)
Taiwan	Present	Horng and Leu (1980)
Turkey	Present	Holm et al. (1997) Demİrcİ and Gene (2009)
Europe
Albania	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Webb, 1968
Bulgaria	Present	Stoimenova et al. (1995) CABI (Undated)
Czechia	Present	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Webb, 1968
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia	Present	Holm et al. (1991) CABI (Undated)
Germany	Present	Holm et al. (1997)
Greece	Present	Holm et al. (1997) CABI (Undated)
Hungary	Present	Gazdag-Torma and Mándoki (1986) CABI (Undated)
Italy	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997) CABI (Undated)
Poland	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
Portugal	Present	Popescu et al. (1983) Chirilă and Pintilie (1986)
Romania	Present	Popescu et al. (1983) CABI (Undated)
Russia	Present	Holm et al. (1997) CABI (Undated)
Serbia	Present	Marić et al. (2018)
Spain	Present	Holm et al. (1997)
Ukraine	Present	Vorob'ev (1974)
United Kingdom	Present	Holm et al. (1997)
North America
Canada	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
-Saskatchewan	Present	Mortensen (1988)
United States	Present, Widespread	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987) Holm et al. (1997) Strauss and Dillard (2009)
-Alabama	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Colorado	Present	Westra et al. (1996)
-Connecticut	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Delaware	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Florida	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Hawaii	Present	Neal (1965)
-Idaho	Present	Klauzer (1983)
-Illinois	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Indiana	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Iowa	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Kansas	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Kentucky	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Louisiana	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Maine	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Maryland	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Massachusetts	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Michigan	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Minnesota	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Mississippi	Present	Chandler (1977) Walker (1981) Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Nebraska	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987) Teo-Sherrell et al. (1996)
-New Hampshire	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-New Jersey	Present	Wilson and Nzewl (1974) Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-New Mexico	Present	Pitts (1996)
-New York	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987) Strauss and Dillard (2009)
-North Carolina	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Ohio	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987) CABI (Undated)
-Oklahoma	Present	Currie and Peeper (1986) Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Pennsylvania	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Rhode Island	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-South Carolina	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-South Dakota	Present	Smith and Arnold (1982) Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Tennessee	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Texas	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987) Pitts (1996)
-Vermont	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Virginia	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-West Virginia	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Wisconsin	Present	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
Oceania
Australia	Present, Widespread	Hnatiuk (1990) Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997) Fuhlbohm et al. (2012)
-New South Wales	Present	Pollock and Davis (1984) Purvis et al. (1985) Hnatiuk (1990) CABI (Undated)
-Northern Territory	Present	Hnatiuk (1990)
-Queensland	Present	Pollock and Davis (1984) Hnatiuk (1990) Fuhlbohm et al. (2012)
-South Australia	Present	Hnatiuk (1990)
-Tasmania	Present	Hnatiuk (1990)
-Victoria	Present	Hnatiuk (1990)
-Western Australia	Present	Hnatiuk (1990)
New Caledonia	Present	MacKee (1985)
New Zealand	Present	Holm et al. (1991) Holm et al. (1997)
South America
Chile	Present	Holm et al. (1997)

Habitat

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H. trionum is common in moist to wet disturbed soils throughout its mainly tropical and subtropical range. It requires bare soil for germination and is shaded out by dense taller crops and other plants.

Hosts/Species Affected

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In addition to the crops listed, H. trionum is also common in gardens, vegetable crops, irrigated crops, nurseries, orchards, along roadsides, around buildings, on wasteland and anywhere which has been disturbed to expose bare soil. It is uncommon in pastures (unless heavily damaged) and in heavily shaded areas.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Allium cepa (onion)	Liliaceae	Main
Ananas comosus (pineapple)	Bromeliaceae	Other
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut)	Fabaceae	Other
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)	Chenopodiaceae	Main
Brassica napus var. napus (rape)	Brassicaceae	Other
Capsicum annuum (bell pepper)	Solanaceae	Other
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Main
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Main
Hordeum vulgare (barley)	Poaceae	Main
Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil)	Fabaceae	Main
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)	Solanaceae	Other
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Other
Sesamum indicum (sesame)	Pedaliaceae	Other
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Other
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum)	Poaceae	Main
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Main
Vitis vinifera (grapevine)	Vitaceae	Other
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main

Biology and Ecology

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Currie and Peeper (1986) found that machine harvesting increased germination of H. trionum from 0% to 40%, suggesting that there is physical inhibition of germination by the woody seed coat. Westra et al. (1996) reported that freshly harvested seeds remained 95% dormant after 3 months storage at 25°C.

Growth studies by Chandler and Dale (1974) showed that this weed was less vigorous than its close relatives Sida spinosa, Anoda cristata and Abutilon theophrasti.

The habit, ecology, germination, vegetative and reproductive growth of the plant are discussed (in Romanian) by Chirila and Pintilie (1986) and by Miron et al. (1996), whilst Westra et al. (1996) have also covered its seed ecology in some detail. Roche (1992) presents a wider summary of its biology and ecology, and Holm et al. (1997) usefully review some older literature.

Notes on Natural Enemies

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H. trionum is an alternative host for some fungal pathogens, including Glomerella cingulata (Mortensen, 1988), Giberella baccata (Walker, 1981) and Verticillium dahliae (Johnson and Brinkerhoff, 1976). It is also recorded as susceptible to Meloidogyne javanica (Bird and Milln, 1979) and the Egyptian stem borer, Earias insulana (Abul-Nasr et al., 1972, Faseli, 1977).

Impact

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Despite its small size, H. trionum can be a significant competitor with many crops. Chandler (1977) showed that height of individual cotton plants could be reduced by densities of <32 weeds per 12 m of row, although final cotton yields were not affected.However, Chandler and Dale (1974) had previously shown that even 64 weeds per 12 m of row had no effects in cotton.

Eaton and Feltner (1973) and Eaton et al. (1976) demonstrated reduced soyabean yields following competition from this weed. Full season competition reduced yield by 75%.

H. trionum is an alternative host for cucumber mosaic cucumovirus in Egypt (Nasser, 1994).

Uses

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H. trionum appears to have no useful attributes.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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There are several other weedy annual species of Hibiscus in various parts of the tropics, but all are significantly taller and more erect as well as being woodier than H. trionum. They include (but are probably not restricted to) the following species:

Hibiscus micranthus from India and West Africa is an erect branched woody herb 0.6-1.5 m tall, with small (1 cm diameter) white to pinkish flowers;

Hibiscus panduraeformis from India is an erect branched distinctly bristly, woody herb, 1-2 m tall with showy yellow flowers with purple centres;

Hibiscus vitifolius is also from India and West Africa, and is an erect, little branched, woody herb, 1-1-5 m tall with showy yellow flowers with dark purple centres;

Hibiscus cannabinus occurs in East Africa and eastern Asia, and is an erect prickly and woody herb, 1-2 m tall with white or yellow flowers also containing a purple centre; and

Hibiscus masterianus from East Africa is an erect thorny woody herb, 1-2 m tall, again with showy yellow flowers with a purple centre.

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

As an annual weed, H. trionum is susceptible to all forms of cultivation which sever the taproot and remove the plant from the soil (Gab-Alla et al., 1985).

In mulching trials with various crop residues Purvis et al. (1985) found that H. trionum numbers were significantly higher in plots mulched with oilseed rape, sorghum or sunflower than with wheat or field pea.

Chemical Control

H. trionum has been controlled with the following herbicides:

metolachlor + oxyfluorfen (Gazdag-Torma and Mandoki, 1986);
oxyfluorfen + chlorbromuron (Gazdag-Torma and Mandoki, 1986);
bifenox (Kondar and Szabo, 1986);
trifluralin (Kondar and Szabo, 1986);
prometryn + fenuron (Kondar and Szabo, 1986);
fenoxan [clomazone] (Hopper, 1986);
cyanazine + atrazine (Parke et al., 1984);
bentazone (Popescu et al., 1983);
acifluorfen (Popescu et al., 1983);
fomesafen (Popescu et al., 1983);
oxyfluorfen (Klauzer, 1983);
prometryne (Kurkova, 1980);
monolinuron (Kurkova, 1980);
metobromuron (Kurkova, 1980);
metribuzin (Kurkova, 1980);
dinitramine (Maksoud et al., 1981);
fluridone (Mirkamali, 1979);
pendimethalin (Wilson and Nzewl, 1974);
triflusulfuron + phenmedipham (Toth and Peter, 1997);
ethofumesate + metamitron (Toth and Peter 1997).

Australian registrations for the control of H. trionum include oxyfluorfen, glufosinate-ammonium, pendimethalin, propachlor, atrazine, prometryne, diquat + paraquat, fluometuron, norflurazon, 2,4-D amine, glyphosate, 2,4-D + picloram, imazethapyr, oryzalin + oxyfluorfen, pendimethalin, acifluorfen, and metribuzin (Hamilton, 1997).

Biological Control

No attempts have been reported at biological control of H. trionum.

References

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Abul-Nasr S, Megahed MM, Mabrouk AAM, 1972. A study on the host plants of the spiny bollworm, Earias insulana (Boisd.) other than cotton and maize (Lepidoptera:Arctiidae). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique d'Egypte, 56:151-161

Bird AF, Milln JP, 1979. The growth of Meloidogyne javanica in some Australian native plants. Search, 10(1/2):48-50

Chandler JM, 1977. Competition of spurred anoda, veletleaf, prickly sida and venice mallow in cotton. Weed Science, 25(2):151-158

Chandler JM, Dale JE, 1974. Comparative growth of four malvaceous species. Proceedings of the 27th Annual Meeting of the Southern Weed Science Society, 116-117

Chirila C, Pintilie C, 1986. Weeds in agricultural crops and their control. (XXIV). Hibiscus trionum L. Productia Vegetala, Cereale si Plante Tehnice, 38(1):25-27

Currie RS, Peeper TF, 1986. Effect of harvest method on weed seed germination and potential emergence of resistance. Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Southern Weed Science Society, 395.

Eaton BJ, Feltner KC, 1973. Venice mallow competition in soybeans. Weed Science, 21(2):89-94

Eaton BJ, Russ OG, Feltner KC, 1976. Competition of velvetleaf, prickly sida and Venice mallow in soybeans. Weed Science, 24(2):224-228

Faseli MD, 1977. Investigations on the biology, ecology and control of Earias insulana Boisd. (Noctuidae). Entomologie et Phytopathologie Appliquees, No.43:Pe 39-54; de 6-7

Gab-Alla FI, Mohamed MK, El-Deepah HRA, 1985. Effect of hoeing and thinning date on maize (Zea mays, L.) and associated weeds. Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor, 23(1):15-28

Gazdag-Torma M, Mándoki A, 1986. Use of Goal 2 E in onions. Növényvédelem, 22(10):471-473.

Guscar HL, Bellman SK, Hillson MT, Warfield TR, 1983. FMC 57020 4EC-control of broadleaves in conventional soybean. Proceedings of the North Central Weed Control Conference Columbus, Ohio, USA, 23.

Hamilton K, 1997. PESKEM - USES - PESTS: The Australian Directory of Registered Pesticides and their Uses. 15th edition. Gatton, Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland.

Hnatiuk RJ, 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 11. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.

Holm LG, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, 1997. World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1991. A Geographic Atlas of World Weeds. Malabar, Florida, USA: Krieger Publishing Company.

Hopper DM, 1986. FMC-57020 - 1985 EUP/TT results. Proceedings, 40th annual meeting of the Northeastern Weed Science Society., 78.

Horng H-C, Leu L-S, 1980. Weeds of Cultivated Land in Taiwan. Taipei, Taiwan: Weed Science Society of the Republic of China.

Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, 1958. The flora of west tropical Africa, 2nd edition (Revised by RWJ Keay). London, UK: Crown Agents.

Ivens GW, 1968. East African Weeds and their Control. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.

Johnson WM, Brinkerhoff LA, 1976. Susceptibility of some crops and weeds to Verticillium dahliae Kleb. isolated from cotton. Proceedings of the 1976 Beltwide Cotton Production Research Conferences. Memphis, Tennessee, USA: National Cotton Council, 21-22.

Klauzer J, 1983. Postemergence broadleaf weed control in onions with oxyfluorfen. Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science, 36:193.

Kondár L, Szabó M, 1986. Weed control in sunflowers. Növényvédelem, 22(3):126-129.

Kurkova ZI, 1980. Effect of chemical and mechanical treatments of soil on yield and quality of potatoes in Alma-Ata region. Nauchnye osnovy vozdelyvaniya kartofelya v Kazakhstane., 124-139.

Lorenzi HJ, Jeffery LS(Editors), 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. New York, USA; Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., 355 pp.

MacKee HS, 1985. Les Plantes Introduites et Cultivees en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Volume hors series, Flore de la Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances. Paris, France: Museum Nationelle d'Histoire Naturelle.

Maksoud MA, Rizk TY, El-Oksh I, Fayed T, Ibrahim H, 1981. Chemical and mechanical weed control in transplanted tomatoes. Annals of Agricultural Science, 26(1/2):307-321

Mathew KT, Malallah G, Al-Dosari M, 2012. Eleven new weeds in Kuwait. Kuwait Journal of Science & Engineering, 39(1A):169-192.

Mijatovic K, Lozanovski R, undated. Changes in the floristic composition of weed associations in small grains and maize crops as a consequence of long-term application of herbicides and other measures. Drugi kongres u korovima. Zbornik referata., 21-44; 51 ref.

Mirkamali H, 1979. Experiments on the new herbicide fluridon in cotton. Iranian Journal of Plant Pathology, 15(1/4):34-39

Miron V, Iancu E, Teodorescu V, Ditu D, Radoi V, 1996. Ecological peculiarities of the principal weed species present in vegetable crops. Anale Institutul de Cerceta^breve~ri pentru Legumicultura^breve~ s^tail~i Floricultura^breve~, Vidra, 14:335-339; 5 ref.

Mortensen K, 1988. The potential of an endemic fungus, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, for biological control of round-leaved mallow (Malva pusilla) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Science, 36(4):473-478

Nasser MAK, 1994. Incidence of cucumber mosaic virus in relation to aphid vectors activity and infection sources. Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 25(3):223-232

Neal MC, 1965. In Gardens of Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Special Publication No. 50. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum.

Parke D, Bedford J, 1984. Bladex a triazine herbicide for fallow weed control. No-tillage crop production in northern N.S.W. [Edited by Martin, R.J.; Felton, W.L.] Tamworth, Australia; Department of Agriculture, 121-122

Pitts JR, 1996. Pre-emergence and post-emergence weed control in west Texas with Staple herbicide. In: Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conferences Nashville, 1996. Memphis, USA: National Cotton Council, Vol. 2:1525-1526.

Pollock DC, Davis RC, 1984. Conservation tillage farming in northern New South Wales and Queensland with chlorsulfuron. Proceedings of the seventh Australian weeds conference, 1984, Volume II [edited by Madin, R.W.] Perth, Australia; Weed Society of Western Australia, 1-7

Popescu A, Sarpe N, Tomoroga P, Popa F, Dinu C, Penescu A, 1983. Efficiency of herbicides in controlling Solanum nigrum, Abutilon theophrasti and other dicotyledonous weeds in soyabean crops. Probleme de Agrofitotehnie Teoretica si Aplicata, 5(4):381-393

Purvis CE, Jessop RS, Lovett JV, 1985. Selective regulation of germination and growth of annual weeds by crop residues. Weed Research, UK, 25(6):415-421

Rao SRS, Ramayya N, 1981. Distribution of stomata and its relation to plant habit in the order Malvales. Indian Journal of Botany, 4(2):149-156

Roche C, 1992. Venice mallow (Hibiscus trionum L.). Pacific Northwest Cooperative Extension Publication, PNW412:2 pp.

Smith RL, Arnold WE, 1982. Phytotoxic interactions in tank mix applications of acifluorfen and bentazon. Proceedings, North Central Weed Control Conference. North Central Weed Control Conference, Inc. napolis, USA India, 75

Stoimenova I, Taleva A, Mikova A, 1995. Herbicidal spectrum of some mixtures used in soybean growing. In: Proceedings, Soil Science and Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture Conference, Sofia, Bulgaria. Pochvoznanie, Agrokhimiya y Ekologyia, 30(1-6): 197-199.

Teo-Sherrell CPA, Mortensen DA, Keaton ME, 1996. Fates of weed seeds in soil: a seeded core method of study. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33(5):1107-1113; 24 ref.

Toth E, Peter I, 1997. Weed control in sugarbeet with triflusulfuron-methyl based programmes: the Hungarian experience. Proceedings of the 49th international symposium on crop protection, Gent, Belgium, 6 May 1997, Part III. Mededelingen Faculteit Landbouwkundige en Toegepaste Biologische Wetenschappen, Universiteit-Gent, 1997, 62(3a): 791-798.

Vernon R, unda. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Department of Agriculture Chilanga Zambia, 151pp.

Villiers DA de, 1987. Alternative hosts for the black root rot fungus Thielaviopsis basicola of tobacco. Phytophylactica, 19(3):347-348

Vorob'ev NE, 1974. Study of the importance of competition for light in interrelations between cultivated and weed plants. Ukrain'skii Botanichnii Zhurnal, 31(1):18-24

Walker HL, 1981. Fusarium lateritium: a pathogen of spurred anoda (Anoda cristata), prickly sida (Sida spinosa) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti). Weed Science, 29(6):629-631

Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute.

Westra P, Pearson CH, Ristau R, Schweissing F, 1996. Venice mallow (Hibiscus trionum) seed production and persistence in soil in Colorado. Weed Technology, 10(1):22-28; 18 ref.

Wilson RR, Nzewl GI, 1974. Pre-emergence weed control in corn with AC-92553 herbicide. Proceedings of the North Central Weed Control Conference, Vol. 29:128-129.

Distribution References

Anon, 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. [ed. by Lorenzi H J, Jeffery L S]. New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd. 355 pp.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

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