Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato (Heterobasidion root rot)

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Symptoms on young pine trees

H. annosum causing death of young pine trees (Pinus spp.) in Thetford Forest, Norfolk, UK.

David S. Ingram

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato (Fr.) Bref. 1888

Preferred Common Name

Heterobasidion root rot

Other Scientific Names

Fomes annosus (Fr.) Cooke 1885
Fomitopsis annosa (Fr.) P. Karst. 1881
Oedocephalum lineatum B.K. Bakshi 1950
Polyporus annosus Fr. 1821
Spiniger meineckellus (A.J. Olson) Stalpers 1974
Trametes radiciperda R. Hartig 1874
Ungulina annosa (Fr.) Pat. 1900

International Common Names

English: annosum root rot; annosus root rot; butt rot: conifers; conifers butt-rot; conifers heart rot; conifers red rot; Fomes root rot; heart rot: conifers; red rot: conifers; root rot: conifers; root rot: Hevea spp.
Spanish: podredumbre de los arboles resinosos
French: coeur rouge de l'epicea; le fomes; maladie du rond des pins; pourriture rouge des coniferes

Local Common Names

Germany: Heterobasidion Stamm- und Wurzelfäule; Heterobasidion-Fäule; Kernfäule; Rotfaeule: Fichte; Rotfäule: Fichte; Stockfaeule; Stockfäule; Wurzelfaeule; Wurzelfäule; Wurzelschwamm; Wurzelschwamm: Nadelhoelzer

EPPO code

HETEAN (Heterobasidion annosum)

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Subphylum: Agaricomycotina
Class: Agaricomycetes
Subclass: Agaricomycetidae
Order: Russulales
Family: Bondarzewiaceae
Genus: Heterobasidion
Species: Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Interfertility studies and DNA analyses have shown that the former Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato is a species complex consisting of at least four intersterile, or almost intersterile, taxa that show differences in distribution and host preference. As a consequence of these studies, Buchanan (1988) separated the non-pathogenic form of Heterobasidion occurring in Australia and adjacent regions from the Northern Hemisphere H. annosum as a new species, H. araucariae. Later, the European intersterility groups 'P', 'S' and 'F' of H. annosum sensu lato were recognized at species level by Niemelä and Korhonen (1998), with the names H. annosum sensu stricto, H. parviporum and H. abietinum, respectively.

These new species are treated separately in the Compendium, but the Northern Hemisphere taxa in the H. annosum complex are also treated as a collective species, H. annosum sensu lato, because their distribution is not well known. This complex includes the Eurasian species H. annosum sensu stricto, H. parviporum, H. abietinum and the North American intersterility groups 'P' and 'S'. The taxonomic relationships between the North American groups and the Eurasian species are not yet clear. In the Compendium, these groups are covered in the datasheets on H. annosum sensu stricto and H. parviporum, respectively.

All species and groups of the H. annosum complex show some sexual compatibility with other members of the complex in laboratory tests, but hybrids are very rare in nature (Gonthier et al., 2001). A case of hybridization has been reported in Europe (Schulze, 2000). Hybridization between the local S and P group appears to be more common in western North America. In greenhouse inoculation experiments, hybrid isolates showed lower pathogenicity than the parent groups (Garbelotto et al., 1998).

In addition to the Northern Hemisphere H. annosum sensu lato and Southern Hemisphere H. araucariae, the genus Heterobasidion includes another distinctly defined species, H. insulare, an almost non-pathogenic wood-decay fungus occurring in eastern and southern Asia. A number of other species have been described within this genus but their status as 'good' species has not been proved (Niemelä and Korhonen, 1998).

Description

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Basidioma perennial, very irregular in shape, often imbricate and confluent, sesile with broad basal attachment, at times resupinate. Pileus 0-15 x 2-25 x 0·5-3 cm, convex, applanate, dimidiate or appressed-reflexed; upper surface grey-brown to bay, darkening with age, glabrescent, leaving a tuberculate-rugose crust, zonate; margin white, thin, acute. Context 0·2-1 cm thick, whitish, firm, corky to woody. Pore surface white to yellowish; pores irregular, circular to labyrinthoid, (1-) 2-3 per mm, 150-500 (-1000) µm diameter, dissepiments 40-120 µm thick, edge entire; tubes unevenly or distinctly stratified, 2-10 mm long in each layer, old tubes white stuffed. Basidiospores 3·5-5·5 x 3-4 (av. 4·5 x 3·5) µm, ovoid to broadly ellipsoid, hyaline, thin-walled, slightly asperulate, with a few guttulate contents. Basidia 9-13 x 5-7 µm, short clavate, 4-spored, without basal clamp. Cystidia absent. Hyphal system dimitic, non-agglutinated, with generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae. Generative hyphae 1·5-3 µm diameter, hyaline, thin-walled, freely branching, simple septate. Skeletal hyphae 1·5-5 µm diameter, hyaline, unbranched, of unlimited growth, thick-walled with narrow lumen, non-septate. Conidiophores produced in culture, oedocephaloid, vertical. Conidia 4·5-6·5 x 3-5·5 µm, non-septate, hyaline, ellipsoid to piriform, thick-walled (Pegler and Waterston, 1968).

Colonies growing rapidly on malt agar, 6-8 cm in 7 days, optimum temperature 26°C, strong reaction to tannic acid media (Campbell, 1938), mat floccose cottony, pale fawn, azonate, soon pulverulent due to conidial production (Cartwright and Findlay, 1946); cuticular cells and interlocking hyphae reported in some isolates forming pellicular crustose areas, test for extracellular oxidase negative (Nobles, 1965).

Pure cultures of H. annosum sensu lato originating from Europe or North America can be identified easily on the basis of typical conidiophores. Identification of cultures originating from eastern and southern Asia is more difficult because the local species H. insulare produces similar conidiophores, as does the Australian species H. araucariae.

Distribution

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Some earlier records of H. annosum sensu lato from eastern and southern Asia may, in fact, represent Heterobasidion insulare, which can look very similar to H. annosum sensu lato, or other species of Heterobasidion that may occur in this region (Buchanan, 1988; Niemelä and Korhonen, 1998).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 23 Apr 2020

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Morocco	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
Asia
Afghanistan	Present	Native			Buchanan (1988)
China	Present, Localized				EPPO (2020)
-Jilin	Present, Localized	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Dai et al. (2003)
-Sichuan	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Tibet	Present, Localized	Native			Mao (1993)
-Xinjiang	Present, Localized	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) CABI (Undated)
-Yunnan	Present				UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
India	Present, Localized				EPPO (2020)
-Assam	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Himachal Pradesh	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Meghalaya	Present	Native			Roy and De (1996)
-Punjab	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Uttar Pradesh	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Israel	Present				Binyamini (1982)
Japan	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) Kobayashi et al. (1981) EPPO (2020)
Kazakhstan	Present, Localized	Native			Solov'ev (1963)
Kyrgyzstan	Present	Native			CABI (Undated) EPPO (2020)	Original citation: Dai et al. (2003)
Malaysia	Present, Localized				EPPO (2020)
-Peninsular Malaysia	Present				EPPO (2020)
Myanmar	Present	Native			Hussain (1952)
Nepal	Present	Native			Adhikari (1988)
Pakistan	Present, Widespread				Hussain (1952) UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Philippines	Present	Native			Eusebio (1977)
Turkey	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Vietnam	Present, Widespread				UK, CAB International (1980) Parmasto (1986) EPPO (2020)
Europe
Albania	Present, Localized	Native			Lushaj (2001)
Austria	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Belarus	Present				EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
Belgium	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Present	Native			Marinkovic (1980)
Bulgaria	Present, Localized	Native	1907		UK, CAB International (1980) Rosnev and Petkov (1986) EPPO (2020)
Croatia	Present, Widespread	Native			Halambek et al. (1996)
Czechia	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) Kotlaba (1984) EPPO (2020)
Czechoslovakia	Present, Widespread				UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2014)
Denmark	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) Thomsen (1994) EPPO (2020)
Estonia	Present	Native			Hanso and Hanso (2003) EPPO (2020)
Faroe Islands	Present				Vesterholt and Pedersen (1995)
Finland	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
France	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Germany	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Greece	Absent, Eradicated				Tsopelas and Korhonen (1996)
Hungary	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Ireland	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Italy	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Latvia	Present	Native			Grantiņa et al. (2000) EPPO (2020)
Lithuania	Present	Native			Vasiliauskas et al. (2002) EPPO (2020)
Moldova	Present, Localized	Native			Gorova (1980)
Netherlands	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
North Macedonia	Present	Native			Marinkovic (1980)
Norway	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Poland	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Portugal	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Madeira	Present				Korhonen (1978)
Romania	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Russia	Present, Localized				EPPO (2020)
-Eastern Siberia	Present				EPPO (2020)
-Russia (Europe)	Present	Native			EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Russian Far East	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) Morozova and Tkacz (1997) EPPO (2020)
-Siberia	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) Negrutskiĭ (1986)
-Western Siberia	Present				EPPO (2020)
Serbia	Present, Widespread				EPPO (2020)
Serbia and Montenegro	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) Tomanic et al. (2000) EPPO (2020)
Slovakia	Present, Widespread	Native			Kotlaba (1984)
Slovenia	Present, Widespread	Native			Munda et al. (1998)
Spain	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Sweden	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Switzerland	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Ukraine	Present	Native			EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
United Kingdom	Present, Localized	Native			EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-England	Present, Localized				EPPO (2020)
-Northern Ireland	Present, Localized	Native			EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Scotland	Present, Localized	Native			EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
North America
Canada	Present, Localized				EPPO (2020)
-British Columbia	Present	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020) CABI (Undated)
-Nova Scotia	Present				Punter (1970) UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Ontario	Present	Native		Invasive	Punter (1970) UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Quebec	Present, Localized	Native		Invasive	Laflamme and Blais (1995)
Cuba	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Dominican Republic	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
Guatemala	Present	Native			LOWE (1957)
Honduras	Present, Localized	Native			CABI (Undated a)
Jamaica	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) Greig and Foster (1982) EPPO (2020)
Mexico	Present, Widespread	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
United States	Present, Widespread				UK, CAB International (1980) EPPO (2020)
-Alabama	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Hodges (1969)
-Alaska	Present, Localized	Native			UK, CAB International (1980) CABI (Undated)
-Arizona	Present, Localized	Native			Gilbertson et al. (1974) CABI (Undated)
-Arkansas	Present, Localized	Native			Wilson (1963)
-California	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)
-Colorado	Present, Widespread	Native			James and Goheen (1981) CABI (Undated)
-Connecticut	Present, Widespread	Native			Stoddard et al. (1939)
-Delaware	Present, Localized	Native			Hartley (1910) USDA Forest Service (1997)
-Florida	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)
-Georgia	Present, Widespread	Native			Froelich et al. (1977) CABI (Undated)
-Idaho	Present, Widespread	Native			Williams (1989) CABI (Undated)
-Illinois	Present, Localized	Native			HANSON and LAUTZ (1971)
-Indiana	Present, Localized	Native			Williams (1959)
-Iowa	Present, Localized	Native			Anderson et al. (1976)
-Kentucky	Present, Localized	Native			Kentucky Division of Forestry (2003)
-Louisiana	Present, Localized	Native			Froelich et al. (1977)
-Maine	Present, Localized	Native			Shigo (1975)
-Maryland	Present, Localized	Native			Little et al. (1968)
-Massachusetts	Present, Localized	Native			SINCLAIR (1964)
-Michigan	Present, Localized	Native			Strong and Lemmien (1964)
-Minnesota	Present, Localized	Native			Gilbertson and Lombard (1976)
-Mississippi	Present, Localized	Native			Froelich et al. (1977)
-Missouri	Present, Widespread	Native			BERRY and DOOLING (1962)
-Montana	Present, Widespread	Native			Williams (1989) CABI (Undated)
-Nebraska	Present, Localized	Native			CABI (Undated)
-Nevada	Present, Widespread	Native			Tegethoff (1973) CABI (Undated)
-New Hampshire	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Miller (1960)
-New Jersey	Present	Native			SINCLAIR (1964)
-New Mexico	Present, Localized	Native			Gilbertson et al. (1975) CABI (Undated)
-New York	Present, Widespread	Native			SINCLAIR (1964)
-North Carolina	Present, Widespread	Native			Jacobi et al. (1980) USDA Forest Service (2000)
-Ohio	Present, Localized	Native			Berry (1968)
-Oregon	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)
-Pennsylvania	Present, Localized	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Stambaugh et al. (1962)
-Rhode Island	Present, Widespread	Native			Hadfield (1970)
-South Carolina	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)
-South Dakota	Present	Native			SINCLAIR (1964)
-Tennessee	Present, Widespread	Native			Applegate (1971)
-Texas	Present, Localized	Native			Mason (1969) USDA Forest Service (2000)
-Utah	Present, Localized	Native			Williams (1989) CABI (Undated)
-Vermont	Present, Widespread	Native			Chase and Ullrich (1983)
-Virginia	Present, Widespread	Native			Webb et al. (1981)
-Washington	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)
-West Virginia	Present, Widespread	Native			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Ginns and Gillespie (1962)
-Wisconsin	Present, Localized	Native			Stanosz et al. (1995) CABI (Undated)
-Wyoming	Present, Localized	Native			Tegethoff (1973) CABI (Undated)
Oceania
Australia	Present, Localized				EPPO (2020)
-New South Wales	Present				EPPO (2020)
-Queensland	Present				EPPO (2020)
Fiji	Present, Widespread				EPPO (2020)
New Zealand	Present, Widespread				EPPO (2020)
Papua New Guinea	Present, Widespread				EPPO (2020)

History of Introduction and Spread

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There are no proven cases of introduction of H. annosum sensu lato.

Hosts/Species Affected

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The host range of H. annosum sensu lato includes a wide range of Northern Hemisphere conifers, less commonly broadleaved trees and other woody plants, and rarely non-woody plants.

For further information on hosts, see Sinclair (1964), Greig (1976), Delatour (1977), Wagn (1980) and Webb and Alexander (1985).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context
Abies (firs)	Pinaceae	Main
Abies alba (silver fir)	Pinaceae	Other
Abies concolor (Rocky Mountain white fir)	Pinaceae	Other
Abies grandis (grand fir)	Pinaceae	Other
Alnus glutinosa (European alder)	Betulaceae	Other
Angelica archangelica (Angelica)	Apiaceae	Other
Betula pendula (common silver birch)	Betulaceae	Other
Betula pubescens (Downy birch)	Betulaceae	Other
Corylus avellana (hazel)	Betulaceae	Other
Dicotyledonae (dicotyledons)		Other
Juniperus (junipers)	Cupressaceae	Main
Larix (larches)	Pinaceae	Main
Picea (spruces)	Pinaceae	Main
Picea abies (common spruce)	Pinaceae	Other
Picea glauca (white spruce)	Pinaceae	Other
Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce)	Pinaceae	Other
Pinopsida (conifers)		Other
Pinus (pines)	Pinaceae	Other
Pinus jeffreyi (Jeffrey pine)	Pinaceae	Other
Pinus pinaster (maritime pine)	Pinaceae	Main
Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine)	Pinaceae	Other
Pinus resinosa (red pine)	Pinaceae	Other
Pinus strobus (eastern white pine)	Pinaceae	Other
Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine)	Pinaceae	Other
Pseudotsuga (douglas-fir)	Pinaceae	Main
Pyrus communis (European pear)	Rosaceae	Other
Rosa (roses)	Rosaceae	Other
Salix alba (white willow)	Salicaceae	Other
Sorbus aucuparia (mountain ash)	Rosaceae	Other
Thuja	Cupressaceae	Main
Tsuga (hemlocks)	Pinaceae	Main
Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock)	Pinaceae	Other

Growth Stages

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Vegetative growing stage

Symptoms

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H. annosum sensu lato causes root decay in all hosts, but the extent of stem decay varies according to the host species (Greig, 1998). In resinous conifers, like most pine species, infection causes profuse resin excretion on the roots and at the base of the stem. This excretion blocks the flow of fluids in the stem. The tree dies relatively soon afterwards; the green crown turns brown and dies simultaneously.

In coniferous genera such as Picea, Abies, Larix, Pseudotsuga and Tsuga, decay rises up the stem, usually as a heart rot. The tree may be asymptomatic for decades after infection. External symptoms only appear at an advanced stage of decay and include reduced growth, defoliation of the crown, and resin exudations on the stem. Wind-thrown trees with decayed roots or open gaps in the stand often indicate the presence of Heterobasidion root rot in the forest. In the field, Heterobasidion root rot can only be identified with assurance by the presence of basidiocarps, which usually hide under decayed roots, moss cover at the stem base of dead trees, in hollow stumps, or under the fallen trunks of diseased trees.

Stem decay caused by Heterobasidion remains relatively hard for long time and is usually light brown in colour. The first stage of decay often has a violet coloration. Advanced decay contains small, white cellulose pockets ('white pocket rot'), often with black spots.

List of Symptoms/Signs

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Sign	Life Stages	Type
Roots / rot of wood
Stems / discoloration of bark

Biology and Ecology

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Members of the H. annosum complex are root rot fungi that spread vegetatively via root contact and grafts, forming distinct disease centres in the tree stand (Stenlid and Redfern, 1998). These disease centres begin with the infection of freshly cut conifer stumps or wounds on the roots or (more seldom) stems of living conifers by spores of the fungus (Redfern and Stenlid, 1998). In large stumps the fungus can remain alive and infectious for decades after felling and thus forms a threat for the next conifer generation (Piri, 1996).

Heterobasidion root rot is most damaging on soils with a high pH and in afforestations on former agricultural soil. The frequency of rot is very dependent on forest management practices.

Transmission

Heterobasidion spores may become airborne when daily temperatures rise above 0°C, and their number can be substantial above 10°C (Redfern and Stenlid, 1998). Long, dry periods will interrupt spore production by the fungus, and high temperatures on stump surfaces will prevent infection (Driver and Ginns, 1969). Spores deposited on the forest soil are carried down by rainwater and may remain infective for several months (Kuhlman, 1966). Spores may be introduced into disease-free areas on nursery seedlings (Jorgensen, 1961).

Physiological Specialization

Different members of the H. annosum complex show distinct physiological differentiation: for example, in enzymatic properties (Maijala et al., 2003) and wood-decaying ability (Daniel et al., 1998).

Natural enemies

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Natural enemy	Type	Biological control in
Armillaria mellea	Pathogen
Bjerkandera adusta	Pathogen
Bjerkandera adusta	Pathogen
Fomitopsis pinicola	Pathogen
Gloeophyllum saepiarium	Pathogen
Hirschioporus abietinus	Pathogen
Hypholoma capnoides	Pathogen
Hypocrea rufa	Mycoparasite	Italy
Macrolepiota procera	Pathogen
Macrolepiota rachodes	Pathogen
Neonectria fuckeliana	Pathogen
Oidiodendron maius	Pathogen
Phlebia gigantea	Pathogen
Pleurotus ostreatus	Antagonist
Polyporus benzoinus	Pathogen
Resinicium bicolor	Pathogen
Scytalidium album	Pathogen
Scytalidium lignicola	Pathogen
Sistotrema brinckmannii	Pathogen
Tolypocladium niveum	Pathogen

Means of Movement and Dispersal

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Natural Dispersal

The great majority of spores fall within a few hundred metres of the source (Möykkynen et al., 1997), but viable, airborne spores have been found 300 km from the nearest source (Rishbeth, 1959). Conidia may also have some role in the aerial dispersal of Heterobasidion spores (Hsiang et al., 1989; Möykkynen, 1997).

Vector Transmission

Insects and other animals can carry spores of Heterobasidion but appear to be of minor importance in spreading the disease (Otrosina and Cobb, 1989).

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
Roots	hyphae	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms usually invisible
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches	fruiting bodies; hyphae	Yes	Yes	Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye
Wood

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx
Fruits (inc. pods)
Leaves
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants
True seeds (inc. grain)

Wood Packaging

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Wood Packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport
Loose wood packing material
Non-wood
Processed or treated wood
Solid wood packing material with bark
Solid wood packing material without bark

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

In healthy and slightly diseased stands in risky areas it is important to prevent infection by spores. This is done by performing cuttings during the seasons (cold winter or hot summer) when the risk of spore infection is low or absent. For cuttings carried out during the more risky warm season, the cut surface of fresh stumps can be treated with a protectant to prevent infection. The most commonly used protectants are urea and borax (Pratt et al., 1998) and the competitive fungus Phlebia gigantea (Holdenrieder and Greig, 1998). Care should be taken to avoid wounding the roots during logging operations, especially when cuttings are carried out during the warm season. Wide spacing and minimizing the number of thinnings during rotation will reduce the risk of infection.

Little can be done to control the fungus in diseased stands. The only real possibility is to shorten the rotation time in heavily diseased stands.

The extraction of infected stumps before regeneration essentially reduces the risk of infection in the next generation of susceptible conifers. The spread of the disease from stumps can also be reduced by favouring the regeneration of resistant tree species close to decayed stumps. Heterobasidion infection can be cleared from a site by cultivating a rotation of a resistant tree species. Current knowledge suggests that pure broadleaved tree stands are practically resistant. Susceptible conifers should be avoided or cultivated in mixture with resistant trees in afforestations on former agricultural soils (Korhonen et al., 1998b).

References

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Adhikari MK, 1988. Polypores (wood-rotting fungi) of Nepal. Banko Janakari Kathmandu, Nepal; Forest Research and Information Centre, Forest Survey and Research Office, Department of Forests, 2(1):9-20

Anderson RL; Ritter W; Witmer RC, 1976. Fomes annosus found on eastern white pine in Iowa. Plant Disease Reporter, 60:981-984.

Anon., 1959. Reports on forest research for the years ended March, 1957, March, 1958. London, UK: HMSO.

Anon., 1985. Taxonomy and ecology of wood-destroying fungi. Rep. For. Prod. Aust. 1965/66, 1966 (39).

Anon., 2004. Cylindroselloides dybasi, Hall in Nova Scotia. World Wide Web page at http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/Environment/NHR/cylindroselloides.html.

Applegate HW, 1971. Annosus root rot mortality in once-thinned loblolly pine plantations in Tennessee. Plant Disease Reporter, 55:625-627.

Bakshi BK, 1950. Fungi associated with ambrosia beetles in Great Britain. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 33(1-2):111-120.

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Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato (Heterobasidion root rot)

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