Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur)

Pictures

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Picture

Title

Caption

Copyright

Habit

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); habit. India. November 2009.

©Dinesh Valke/via flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Habit

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); habit. Goa, India. September 2009.

©J.M. Garg/via wikipedia - CC BY 3.0

Habit

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); habit. India. November 2009.

©Dinesh Valke/via flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Leaves and flowers

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); habit, showing leaves, flowers and stems. Goa, India. September 2009.

©J.M. Garg/via wikipedia - CC BY 3.0

Flower

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); flower and leaves. Goa, India. September 2009.

©J.M. Garg/via wikipedia - CC BY 3.0

Flowers

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); flowers. Mozambique. April 2013.

©Ton Rulkens/via flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Seeds

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); developing seeds,. nr. Steenbokpan, Limpopo, South Africa. May 2015.

©JMK/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Seeds

Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur); seeds. Original material from Apurimac, Peru.

Public Domain - Released by the ARS Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory/original image by Steve Hurst.

Identity

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Preferred Scientific Name

Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (1836)

Preferred Common Name

bristly starbur

Other Scientific Names

Acanthospermum humile Chev.

International Common Names

English: goat's head; star burr; Texas cockspur; upright starbur
Spanish: corona de la reina; cuagrilla
French: herbe savane
Portuguese: carrapicho-de-carneiro

Local Common Names

Argentina: cuajrilla; torito
Bolivia: espinoso; estrella; tacuo
Brazil: amor de negro; cabeca de boi; camboeiro; carrapicho de carneiro; chifre de carneiro; chifre de veado; espinho de agulha; espinho de cigano; federacão; poejo de praia; retirante
Colombia: carrapichno; carrapicho rasteiro
Dominican Republic: mala mujer
East Africa: jina la kawaida
India: kattu nerinji; saroto
Mauritius: herbe tricorne
Nigeria: kasinyawo
Paraguay: toro rati
South Africa: donkieklits; regop sterklits
USA: bristly starbur; goathead
Zambia: kanjata; nchesa; nseeto
Zimbabwe: sibama yauli

EPPO code

ACNHI (Acanthospermum hispidum)
ACNHU (Acanthospermum humile)

Summary of Invasiveness

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A. hispidum is a troublesome annual weed of annual and perennial crops, which has spread remarkably widely from its origins in South America, almost exclusively as a result of accidental rather than deliberate transfer. The spiny fruits are a particular hazard to livestock and assist the movement of the weed in agricultural produce. There are many countries, and regions within larger countries, to which it could yet be introduced and prove invasive, with corresponding costs to agriculture.

Taxonomic Tree

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Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Subphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Acanthospermum
Species: Acanthospermum hispidum

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

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Acanthospermum combines the Greek akanthos, meaning 'spiny' or 'thorny', with sperma, meaning seed, a reference to the large hooked spines on the seed; hispidum is from the Latin hispidus, meaning 'hairy' or 'bristly', alluding to the generally rough, hairy covering on stems and leaves (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).

Description

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A. hispidum is an annual herb, up to 90 cm high with a shallow, branched tap root. The stem is erect, and exhibits regular dichotomous branching to form a more or less flat-topped plant, covered in stiff hairs. Leaves are in opposite pairs, without petioles, obovate, up to 8 cm long and 3 cm wide, slightly lobed, irregularly toothed and hairy. Inflorescences are solitary, composite heads in the axils of upper leaves, sessile, pale yellow-green and about 6 mm in diameter. Florets are quite few and are monoecious, the 5-10 ray florets being female and a similar number of disc florets male. The fruit consists wedge-shaped achenes grouped into star-shaped clusters. The achenes (also called burrs) are about 6 mm long and covered with numerous short, stiff, hooked spines, with two much longer spines at the apex.

Plant Type

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Annual
Broadleaved
Seed propagated

Distribution

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A. hispidum originates from South America and can be considered native wherever it occurs in South and Central America and in the Caribbean (USDA-ARS, 2005), but has spread very widely in North America, Africa, Asia and Australia and now occurs in over 60 countries (Holm et al., 1997; USDA-ARS, 2005, etc). Although mainly tropical and sub-tropical in distribution, it is also recorded from temperate Northeast Russia, near Vladivostok (Buch and Shvydkaya, 1989), and from France (Ballais, 1969).

Distribution Table

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The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.

Last updated: 17 Dec 2021

Continent/Country/Region	Distribution	Origin	First Reported	Invasive	Reference	Notes
Africa
Angola	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Benin	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Botswana	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Phillips (1991)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Côte d'Ivoire	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Ethiopia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Stroud and Parker (1989)
Gambia	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Terry (1981)
Ghana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Guinea	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Adams (1963)
Guinea-Bissau	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Adams (1963)
Kenya	Present, Widespread	Introduced	1945	Invasive	Terry and Michieka (1987) Blundell (1992)
Liberia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Adams (1963)
Madagascar	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Malawi	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Banda and Morris (1986)
Mali	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Adams (1963)
Mauritius	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Mozambique	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Namibia	Present	Introduced			Wells et al. (1986)
Niger	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Nigeria	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Adams (1963) Gabuin et al. (2014) Famaye et al. (2020)
Senegal	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Berhaut (1967) Holm et al. (1979)
Sierra Leone	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Adams (1963)
Somalia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Terry and Michieka (1987)
South Africa	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Henderson and Anderson (1966)
Tanzania	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Terry and Michieka (1987) Kashina et al. (2002)
Uganda	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Terry and Michieka (1987)
Zambia	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Vernon (1983)
Zimbabwe	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Drummond (1984) Seebens et al. (2017)
Asia
Bhutan	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Parker (1992) Seebens et al. (2017)
China	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Wang (1990) Seebens et al. (2017) CABI (Undated)
-Yunnan	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Wang et al., 1990
Hong Kong	Present	Introduced	1974		Seebens et al. (2017)
India	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979) Moody (1989) Nayak and Satapathy (2015)
-Andhra Pradesh	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Rao et al. (1987)
-Gujarat	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Bhattacharyya and Pandya (1996)
-Karnataka	Present, Widespread	Introduced	1917	Invasive	Subbaiah et al. (1995) CABI (Undated)
-Odisha	Present				Nayak and Satapathy (2015)
-Tamil Nadu	Present, Widespread	Introduced	1917	Invasive	Mariappan and Narayanasamy (1972) CABI (Undated)
Indonesia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Kostermans et al. (1987)
-Irian Jaya	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Kostermans et al. (1987)
-Java	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Kostermans et al. (1987)
Myanmar	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Moody (1989)
Singapore	Present	Introduced	1974		Seebens et al. (2017)
Sri Lanka	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Thailand	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Europe
Belgium	Present	Introduced	1953		Seebens et al. (2017)
France	Present, Localized	Introduced			Ballais (1969)
Russia	Present				CABI (Undated a)	Present based on regional distribution.
-Russian Far East	Present, Localized	Introduced			CABI (Undated)	Original citation: Buch & Shvydkya, 1989
North America
Antigua and Barbuda	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Belize	Present	Native		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Canada	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Costa Rica	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Dominica	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
El Salvador	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Guadeloupe	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Fournet and Hammerton (1991)
Guatemala	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Honduras	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Martinique	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Montserrat	Present, Widespread	Native			Fournet and Hammerton (1991) USDA-ARS (2005)
Nicaragua	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Puerto Rico	Present	Native		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Trinidad and Tobago	Present, Localized	Native		Invasive	Fournet and Hammerton (1991)
U.S. Virgin Islands	Present	Native			USDA-NRCS (2005)
United States	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987) McKenzie et al. (2004)
-Alabama	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Arizona	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Florida	Present, Widespread	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987) Hall and Vandiver (1991) McKenzie et al. (2004)	First reported: 1800s
-Georgia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Hawaii	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979) Seebens et al. (2017)
-Louisiana	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Mississippi	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-New Jersey	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2005)
-New Mexico	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-North Carolina	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Oregon	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	USDA-NRCS (2005)
-South Carolina	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Texas	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
-Virginia	Present	Introduced		Invasive	Lorenzi and Jeffery (1987)
Oceania
Australia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Parsons and Cuthbertson (1992) Grice et al. (2004) Seebens et al. (2017)
-New South Wales	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1997)
-Northern Territory	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Miller and Schultz (1997)
-Queensland	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1997) Grice et al. (2004)
-South Australia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1997)
-Western Australia	Present, Localized	Introduced		Invasive	Holm et al. (1997)
South America
Argentina	Present	Native			Marzocca (1979)
Bolivia	Present	Native			Gonzalez and Webb (1989)
Brazil	Present, Widespread	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982) Vergaças et al. (2018)
-Alagoas	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Amazonas	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Bahia	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Ceara	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Espirito Santo	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Goias	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Maranhao	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Mato Grosso	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Minas Gerais	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Paraiba	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Parana	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Pernambuco	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Piaui	Present				Lorenzi (1982)
-Rio Grande do Norte	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Rio Grande do Sul	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Santa Catarina	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
-Sao Paulo	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982) Vergaças et al. (2018)
-Sergipe	Present	Native		Invasive	Lorenzi (1982)
Colombia	Present	Native		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
French Guiana	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Guyana	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Paraguay	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Peru	Present	Native		Invasive	Holm et al. (1979)
Suriname	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)
Venezuela	Present	Native			USDA-ARS (2005)

History of Introduction and Spread

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It was introduced accidentally to Florida, USA, in the 1800s (Hall and Vandiver, 1991); first recorded in Queensland, Australia in the late 19th century (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992); in India in 1917 (Tadulingam and Venkatarayana, 1955); and in Kenya in 1945 (Blundell, 1992). In each case there was some lag before it became invasive, but in India this was apparent by the 1940's. In Australia it was naturalized by 1906 and then spread steadily. The origin and means of introduction are generally unknown, but in Florida and at other points along the eastern USA, it is believed to have been introduced in ship ballast (Hall and Vandiver, 1991) and in most other areas it is assumed to have come in accidentally, as a crop seed contaminant, or adhering to imported wool, skins and furs, rather than deliberately. In southern India, it was first noted around railway stations, and it seems clear that railways have been an important means of spread within countries.

Risk of Introduction

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Although a very large number of countries outside South America have already been infested, there is certainly scope for further spread, e.g. to Mexico and Japan, as well as more widely within countries such as USA and China where many regions with warm summer temperatures remain free so far. As the weed commonly occurs in a wide range of crops in so many countries there is a highly significant risk of accidental introduction via contaminated crop seed as well as in other agricultural produce, including animal products and bags, etc., to which the spiny fruits may be attached. Deliberate introduction is somewhat less likely, though its many traditional medicinal uses could result in a temptation to import for development of pharmaceuticals.

A. hispidum is listed as a prohibited or restricted species for the states of Western Australia and Northern Territories in Australia, and for Hawaii, USA.

Habitat

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A. hispidum is a common weed of arable land, pastures, roadsides and wasteland. It grows in a wide range of climatic conditions and soil types (particularly light soils). It appears to behave similarly in both native and invaded areas. It is mainly tropical and sub-tropical in distribution, but occurs up to altitudes of 1700 m in East Africa (Terry and Michieka, 1987), 1500 m in Bhutan (Parker, 1992) and 1300 m in the Dominican Republic (Jurgens, 1977). It is also recorded from temperate Northeast Russia, near Vladivostok (Buch and Shvydkaya, 1989), and from France (Ballais, 1969), but whether it is fully naturalized in these localities seems doubtful.

Habitat List

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Category	Sub-Category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)

Hosts/Species Affected

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A. hispidum is a widely occurring crop weed (Holm et al., 1997) infesting small- and large-grained cereals, legumes, tree crops (citrus, peach, rubber, vines), vegetables and oil seeds. Most crops are likely to be infested with A. hispidum when grown within the habitat range of this weed.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

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Plant name	Family	Context	References
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra)	Malvaceae	Other
Ananas comosus (pineapple)	Bromeliaceae	Main
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut)	Fabaceae	Main
Citrus	Rutaceae	Other
Eleusine coracana (finger millet)	Poaceae	Other
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Main
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Main
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Hordeum distichon (two-rowed barley)	Poaceae	Other
Manihot esculenta (cassava)	Euphorbiaceae	Other
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)	Solanaceae	Other
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Main
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Main
Pisum sativum (pea)	Fabaceae	Other
Prunus persica (peach)	Rosaceae	Other
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Main
Sesamum indicum (sesame)	Pedaliaceae	Other
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Unknown	Macharia et al. (2016); Kashina et al. (2002)
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Other
Solanum tuberosum (potato)	Solanaceae	Other
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum)	Poaceae	Other
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Other
Vitis (grape)	Vitaceae	Other
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main

Biology and Ecology

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Physiology and Phenology

A. hispidum is a prolific seed producer; a pure stand can contain more than one million plants/ha, producing one billion seeds, weighing almost 10 tonnes (Schwerzel, 1970). After burial for one year, 80% of seed remains viable. Freshly harvested seed has 36% germination, dropping to 15% after dry storage for one year (Holm et al., 1997 - citing the work of P Thomas in Zimbabwe during 1975-82). Most seeds of A. hispidum emerge within three years of production and all seeds die within eight years whether the field is cultivated or not (Schwerzel and Thomas, 1979; Voll et al. 2001). Garcia and Sharif (1995a,b) showed that seeds were generally dormant immediately after being collected. The achenes responded positively to light, and germination was equally promoted by red and far-red light. The germination was highest in the temperature range 20-25°C. Seeds also responded to scarification.

Seedlings emerge over an extended period in the presence of adequate soil moisture and when temperatures are high enough (20-30°C). Subsequent growth is rapid, the first fruit appearing 35-40 days after emergence, seed maturation occurring 45-50 days later (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).

Biomass and seed production are reduced when A. hispidum grows in the shade. This probably accounts for its reduced competitiveness in mixed cropping systems compared with crop monocultures (Shetty et al., 1982).

Reproductive Biology

A. hispidum is monoecious, having male flowers in the centre and female flowers on the outside of the inflorescence. Self-pollination and cross-pollination occur by wind. The spiny achenes (burrs) are readily dispersed on the wool and fur of animals and through contamination of hay and crop residues. They are also carried considerable distances by streams and floodwaters.

Environmental Requirements

A. hispidum apparently requires a certain minimum warmth to germinate and thrive. In South Africa it occurs in the summer rainfall areas but not so much where there is a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall. It would presumably be susceptible to frost, but, as an annual, it can occur in temperate areas with very low minimum temperatures, as the summer temperatures, even in e.g. Northeast Russia, can regularly exceed 20°C.

A. hispidum is especially common on very light sandy soils, but is by no means restricted to this soil type, occurring as a serious weed on a wide range of soils, including clays.

Associations

A. hispidum is an alternative host for several crop pests, see the section on Economic Impact for further details.

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

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Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude Lower (m)	Altitude Upper (m)
		500

Air Temperature

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit
Mean annual temperature (ºC)	4	30

Rainfall

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Parameter	Lower limit	Upper limit	Description
Dry season duration	0	7	number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall
Mean annual rainfall	500	1500	mm; lower/upper limits

Rainfall Regime

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Bimodal
Summer
Uniform

Soil Tolerances

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Soil drainage

free

Soil reaction

acid
alkaline
neutral

Soil texture

heavy
light
medium

Notes on Natural Enemies

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Lloyd (1956) searched for natural enemies of A. hispidum in South America (the centre of origin of this weed) but concluded that there was little hope of finding effective biological control agents. Heliothis peltigera is of some benefit in controlling A. hispidum in Gujarat State, India but it can be a pest of economic plants (Manjunath et al., 1976).

Pathway Vectors

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Vector	Notes	Long Distance
Clothing, footwear and possessions	Achenes adhere to clothing and baggage	Yes
Containers and packaging - wood	Achenes adhere to packing	Yes
Land vehicles	In ship ballast water, also associated with road- and railsides	Yes

Plant Trade

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Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport	Pest stages	Borne internally	Borne externally	Visibility of pest or symptoms
True seeds (inc. grain)	weeds/fruits; weeds/seeds		Yes	Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye

Impact Summary

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Category	Impact
Animal/plant collections	None
Animal/plant products	Negative
Biodiversity (generally)	None
Crop production	Negative
Environment (generally)	None
Fisheries / aquaculture	None
Forestry production	None
Human health	Negative
Livestock production	Negative
Native fauna	None
Native flora	None
Rare/protected species	None
Tourism	None
Trade/international relations	Negative
Transport/travel	None

Impact

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A. hispidum is a weed problem in at least 25 crops, and is one of the three principal weeds of Zimbabwe and Brazil (Holm et al., 1997). It is a declared noxious weed in Hawaii, USA and Australia. The quality of sheep wool is reduced when contaminated by the spiny achenes, and livestock are harmed when the achenes penetrate the hooves, often resulting in infection and subsequent lameness. The plant is toxic to animals when consumed on a daily basis, but is generally avoided by livestock (Holm et al., 1991)

Crop yields are decreased in the presence of A. hispidum which competes for water, nutrients and light. Walker et al. (1989) illustrated a negative linear relationship between groundnut seed yield and the period of interference from A. hispidum. Each week of interference reduced seed yields by 20, 205 and 134 kg/ha, respectively, over three consecutive years, and as little as two weeks of interference caused significant seed yield reductions. Full-season interference from 8 and 64 A. hispidum plants per 7.5 m of crop row reduced groundnut seed yields by 14% and 50%, respectively. Chivinge (1990) recorded losses in soyabean due to A. hispidum planted in pots the same day, but no loss when the weed was planted after 11 or 22 days. Congo, N'zama and Tombé (1999) studied different ratios of soyabean and A. hispidum at a range of densities and concluded that the two species share the same resources without antagonistic interactions. Holm et al. (1997) note that this is a C3 plant with relatively inefficient photosynthesis but that its competitive effect may be enhance by allelopathic influence. Crop losses are also caused by interference from A. hispidum at harvest time. This is a major cause of soyabean yield losses in Brazil (Davis et al., 1979).

A. hispidum is an alternative host for a number of crop pests and diseases including: Heliothis peltigera and H. armigera [Helicoverpa armigera] (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Patel et al., 1971; Manjunath et al., 1976); Calidea dregii (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), a cotton pest in Tanzania (Reed and Kayumbo, 1965); the soyabean pests Euschistus heros and Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) (Panizzi and Rossi, 1991; Mourao and Panizzi, 2000); Tomato leaf curl virus [Tomato yellow leaf curl virus] (Mariappan and Narayanasamy, 1972; Sastry, 1984); Tobacco leaf curl virus (Mariappan and Narayanasamy, 1977; Swanson et al., 1998); Groundnut ringspot virus, the causal agent of spotted wilt in tobacco, (Nunes-e-Silves et al., 2000); Xanthomonas campestris pv. sesami (Nayak and Sharma, 1980); and Verticillium albo-atrum, a wilt-causing pathogen (da Silva and Tokeshi, 1979).

Environmental Impact

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A. hispidum appears to occur relatively rarely in undisturbed habitats, and has not been reported to have an undesirable impact on natural vegetation.

Impact: Biodiversity

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A. hispidum is not known to have invaded national parks or other protected areas beyond occurrence as a weed of already disturbed ground, e.g. along roadsides.

Social Impact

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The spiny fruits of this weed can cause pain and injury to man and animals, and there are some concerns about toxicity to livestock, but there are no reports of serious impact on tourism or other human activities.

Risk and Impact Factors

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Invasiveness

Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts human health
Negatively impacts animal health

Impact mechanisms

Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Produces spines, thorns or burrs

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally

Uses

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A. hispidum is used in traditional medicine for its anthelmintic and antalgic properties in central Africa (Menut et al., 1995). The root is used to cure coughing and bronchitis and a boiled tea of the leaves reduces fever, promotes sweating and cures diarrhoea (Holm et al., 1997). Various tribes in west Africa use A. hispidum for the treatment of arthritis, leprosy, migraine, rheumatism and stomach complaints (Burkhill, 1985). Summerfield and Saalmüller (1998) refer to the use of A. hsipidum as a traditional treatment for infectious diseases in Benin and show that, in the porcine immune system, A. hispidum enhances the proliferation of T lymphocytes. Summerfield et al. (1997) also showed inhibitory activity of A. hispidum extracts on several herpes and pseudo-rabies viruses.

Uses List

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Environmental

Host of pest

Medicinal, pharmaceutical

Traditional/folklore

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

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Acanthospermum australe is a prostrate, glandular herb, similar to A. hispidum but softly tomentose on all parts.

Acanthospermum glabratum is a trailing, annual herb, uncommon in Kenya in the 1970s but becoming quite a common weed in central Kenya by 1990 (PJ Terry, Long Ashton Research Station, University of Bristol, personal communication, 1998).

Prevention and Control

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Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Cultural Control

Quarantine must be considered an integral part of any control programme. All animals brought onto a farm, as well as those transferred from infested to burr-free parts of the farm, must be checked and any burrs removed (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).

Seeds of A. hispidum lose their viability within eight years (Schwerzel and Thomas, 1979), so that prevention of seeding will eventually exhaust the soil seedbank and eradicate the weed. Seedbank depletion can be achieved by ploughing to bury existing seeds to a depth of at least 10 cm, followed by the sowing of an appropriate perennial pasture. Any seedlings which emerge in the pasture should be removed by pulling, hoeing or with herbicides (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).

Cultivation or slashing prior to seed set is beneficial but slashing after seed set will quickly spread the plant (Miller and Schultz, 1997). Mowing A. hispidum and other weeds growing through a groundnut crop was shown by Wehtje et al. (1999) to be beneficial as an alternative to a late post-emergence treatment.

Chemical Control

Herbicides that are reputed to give control of A. hispidum include: 2,4-D, diolamine, acetochlor, atrazine, bentazon, butachlor, cyanazine, diuron, fluometuron, imazethapyr, lactofen, linuron, mefluidide, metolachlor, napropamide, oxyfluorfen, paraquat, pendimathalin, simazine and terbutryn. Pendimethalin is reported to be selective against A. hispidum in groundnut (Gowda et al., 2002), though Reddy et al. (2002) found A. hispidum to be less susceptible than other broad-leaved weeds to pendimethalin, fluchloralin and metolachlor in field bean. A. hispidum was shown by Luo and Matsumoto (2002) to be somewhat more susceptible to the graminicide fluazifop-butyl than other broad-leaved weeds but Gowda et al. (2002) did not confirm this in the field. Foloni and Christoffoletti (1999) indicate promising selectivity in soyabean for the new herbicides carfentrazone and carfentrazone-ester.

References

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Adams CD, 1963. Compositae. In: Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Hepper FN, eds. Flora of West Tropical Africa, Volume 2, Second edition. London, UK: Crown Agents.

Ballais C, 1969. Plants adventices de la Gironde. Toulouse, France: Monde Plantes, 365:5-9.

Banda EA; Morris B, 1986. Common Weeds of Malawi. Lilongwe, Malawi: The University of Malawi.

Berhaut J, 1967. Flore du Senegal. Dakar, Senegal: Editions Clairafrique.

Bhattacharyya G; Pandya SM, 1996. Distribution studies on exotic weeds of Saurashtra (India). Advances in Plant Sciences, 9:29-32.

Blundell M, 1992. Wild Flowers of East Africa. London, UK: Harper Collins.

Buch TG; Shvydkaya VD, 1989. New and rare adventitious species for the Soviet flora and Primorye territory. Botanicheskii Zhurnal, 74(10):1512-1517.

Burkhill HM, 1985. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. I. Families A-D. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens.

Chakravarti S, 1963. Weed control in India. Indian Agriculturalist, 7:23-58.

Chivinge OA, 1990. The interaction of soyabean (Glycine max (L.) Merill) and upright starbur (Acanthospermum hispidum). Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research, 28(1):71-74

Davis G; Voll E; Lorenzi H; Chehata A, 1979. Soybean yield response to control of Brachiaria plantaginea and Acanthospermum hispidum. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Southern Weed Science Society., 333

Drummond RB, 1984. Arable Weeds of Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe: Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe.

Foloni LL; Christoffoleti PJ, 1999. Chemical weed control in soybean in Brazil using new herbicides and mixtures. 1999 Brighton crop protection conference: weeds. Proceedings of an international conference, Brighton, UK, 15-18 November 1999., Volume 1:315-318; 3 ref.

Fournet J; Hammerton JL, 1991. Weeds of the Lesser Antilles. Paris, France: Department d'Economie et Sociologie Rurales, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique.

Garcia QS; Sharif RR, 1995. Ecophysiological aspects of dormancy break in Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Revista Brasileira de Botanica, 18(1):113-117

Garcia QS; Sharif RR, 1995. Germination and dormancy in achenes of Acanthospermum hispidum DC, a weed species. Revista Brasileira de Botanica, 18(1):17-25

Gonzalez G; Webb ME, 1989. Manual para la Identificacion y Control de Malezas. Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical.

Gowda RC; Devi LS; Prasad TVR, 2002. Bio-efficacy of herbicides in groundnut and residues of pendimethalin in soil under fingermillet - groundnut cropping system. Pesticide Research Journal, 14(2):263-267; 5 ref.

Hall DW; Vandiver VV, 1991. Bristly starbur, Acanthospermum hispidum DC. SP37. Florida, USA: Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

Henderson M; Anderson JG, 1966. Common Weeds in South Africa. South Africa: Department of Agricultural and Technical Services.

Holm L; Doll J; Holm E; Pancho J; Herberger J, 1997. World Weeds. Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Holm LG; Pancho JV; Herberger JP; Plucknett DL, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 391 pp.

Jurgens G, 1977. List of weeds of agricultural crops in the Dominican Republic. Berichte aus dem Fachgebiet Herbologie der Universitat Hohenheim, Heft 12:102 pp.

Kashina, B. D., Mabagala, R. B., Mpunami, A. A., 2002. Reservoir weed hosts of tomato yellow leaf curl Begomovirus from Tanzania. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 35(4), 269-278. doi: 10.1080/03235400216134

Kostermans AJGH; Wirjahardja S; Dekker RJ, 1987. The weeds: description, ecology and control. Weeds of rice in Indonesia [edited by Soerjani, M.; Kostermans, A.J.G.H.; Tjitrosoepomo, G.] Jakarta, Indonesia; Balai Pustaka, 24-565

Lloyd D, 1956. Remarks on the possible biological control programme with the weed Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Canadian Entomologist, 88:613-622.

Lorenzi H, 1982. Weeds of Brazil, terrestrial and aquatic, parasitic, poisonous and medicinal. (Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais.) Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi, 425 pp.

Lorenzi HJ; Jeffery LS(Editors), 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. New York, USA; Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., 355 pp.

Luo XiaoYong; Matsumoto H, 2002. Susceptibility of a broad-leaved weed, Acanthospermum hispidum, to the grass herbicide fluazifop-butyl. Weed Biology and Management, 2: 98-103.

Macharia, I., Backhouse, D., Wu, S. B., Ateka, E. M., 2016. Weed species in tomato production and their role as alternate hosts of Tomato spotted wilt virus and its vector Frankliniella occidentalis. Annals of Applied Biology, 169(2), 224-235. doi: 10.1111/aab.12297

Manjunath TM; Patel RC; Yadav DN, 1976. Observations on Heliothis peltigera (Schiff.) (Lep., Noctuidae) and its natural enemies in Anand (Gujarat State, India). Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, B, 93(2):55-65.

Mariappan V; Narayanasamy P, 1972. Acanthospermum hispidum DC., a new host of tomato leaf curl virus. Madras Agricultural Journal, 59:355-357.

Mariappan V; Narayanasamy P, 1977. Characterisation of viruses affecting weeds - 1. Mosaic diseases. Madras Agricultural Journal, 64(2):106-112.

Marzocca A, 1979. Manual de Malezas. 3rd edition. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Hemisferio Sur.

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N'zala D; Tombé D, 1999. Interactions between soyabeans, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, and the weed bristly starbur, Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Cahiers Agricultures, 8(5):409-412; 13 ref.

Panizzi AR; Rossi CE, 1991. The role of Acanthospermum hispidum in the phenology of Euschistus heros and of Nezara viridula. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 59(1):67-74

Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp.

Parsons WT; Cuthbertson EG, 1992. Noxious Weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press, 692 pp.

Patel RC; Patel JC; Patel JK, 1971. New records of parasites of Heliothis armigera (Hbn.) and Heliothis peltigera Schiff. from Gujarat. Indian Journal of Entomology, 33(2):223-224

Phillips M, 1991. A Guide to the Arable Weeds of Botswana. Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of Agriculture.

Rao JVS; Reddy KR; Kumar PJ, 1987. Phytosociological studies on weeds of groundnut in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh. Indian Journal of Ecology, 14(1):67-71.

Reddy VC; Yogananda SB; Reddy SS; Veeranna KP; Bineet Mishra, 2002. Influence of chemical weed control on weed dynamics in field bean. Research on Crops, 3(2):338-344; 4 ref.

Reed W; Kayumbo H, 1965. Detailed studies of pests. Tanzania Western Cotton Growing Area, Progress Report Experimental Station, 13-16.

Sastry KS, 1984. Strains of tomato leaf curl virus and its perpetuation under field conditions. Journal of Turkish Phytopathology, 13(2/3):87-90

Schwerzel P, 1970. Weed phenology and life-span observations. PANS, 16:511-515.

Schwerzel PJ; Thomas PEL, 1979. Effects of cultivation frequency on the survival of seeds of six weeds commonly found in Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Zimbabwe Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, 76(5):195-199.

Shetty SVR; Sivakumar MVK; Ram SA, 1982. Effect of shading on the growth of some common weeds of the semi-arid tropics. Agronomy Journal, 74(6):1023-1029.

Silva GS da; Tokeshi H, 1979. Reaction of some weeds to Verticillium albo-atrum. Summa Phytopathologica, 5(1-2):85-89.

Stroud A; Parker C, 1989. A Weed Identification Guide for Ethiopia. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Subbaiah H; Nanjappa HV; Ramachandrappa BK, 1995. Chemical weed control studies under sole and intercropping systems in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 29(4):320-326; 10 ref.

Summerfield A; Keil GM; Mettenleiter TC; Rziha HJ; Saalmüller A, 1997. Antiviral activity of an extract from leaves of the tropical plant Acanthospermum hispidum. Antiviral Research, 36(1):55-62; 13 ref.

Summerfield A; Saalmüller A, 1998. Interleukin-2 dependent selective activation of porcine d T lymphocytes by an extract from the leaves of Acanthospermum hispidum. International Journal of Immunopharmacology, 20(1/3):85-98; 27 ref.

Swanson MM; Valand GB; Muniyappa V; Harrison BD, 1998. Serological detection and antigenic variation of two whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses: tobacco leaf curl and croton yellow vein mosaic viruses. Annals of Applied Biology, 132(3):427-435; 23 ref.

Tadulingam C; Venkataryana G, 1955. A Handbook of some South Indian Weeds, No. 38/1954. Madras, India: Directorate of Agriculture.

Terry PJ, 1981. Weeds and their control in the Gambia. Tropical Pest Management, 27(1):44-52.

Terry PJ; Michieka RW, 1987. Common Weeds of East Africa. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2005. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov.

Vernon R, unda. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Field guide to important arable weeds of Zambia. Department of Agriculture Chilanga Zambia, 151pp.

Voll E; Torres E; Brighenti AM; Gazziero DLP, 2001. Weed seedbank dynamics under different soil management systems. Planta Daninha, 19(2):171-178; 21 ref.

Walker RH; Wells LW; McGuire JA, 1989. Bristly starbur (Acanthospermum hispidum) interference in peanuts (Arachis hypogpa). Weed Science, 37(2):196-200

Wang ZR, 1990. Farmland Weeds in China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.

Wehtje G; Wells LW; Choate JH; Martin NR Jr; Curtis JM, 1999. Mowing as a weed control supplement to herbicides and cultivation in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Weed Technology, 13: 139-143.

Wells MJ; Balsinhas AA; Joffe H; Engelbrecht VM; Harding G; Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute.

Distribution References

Adams CD, 1963. Compositae. In: Flora of West Tropical Africa, 2 (Second) [ed. by Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Hepper FN]. London, UK: Crown Agents.

Anon, 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. [ed. by Lorenzi H J, Jeffery L S]. New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd. 355 pp.

Ballais C, 1969. Plants adventices de la Gironde., 365 Toulouse, France: Monde Plantes. 5-9.

Banda EA, Morris B, 1986. Common Weeds of Malawi., Lilongwe, Malawi: The University of Malawi.

Berhaut J, 1967. (Flore du Senegal)., Dakar, Senegal: Editions Clairafrique.

Bhattacharyya G, Pandya S M, 1996. Distribution studies on exotic-weeds of Saurashtra (India). Advances in Plant Sciences. 9 (1), 29-32.

Blundell M, 1992. Wild Flowers of East Africa., London, UK: Harper Collins.

CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI

CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI

Drummond RB, 1984. Arable Weeds of Zimbabwe., Harare, Zimbabwe: Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe.

Famaye A O, Adeosun S A, Ayegboyin K O, Adejobi K B, Akanbi O S O, Okunade A F, 2020. Evaluation of weed incidence and biomass in coffee intercropped with oil palm in avenue and hollow square arrangement in Nigeria. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 11 (2), 276-284. DOI:10.4236/ajps.2020.112021

Fournet J, Hammerton J L, 1991. Mauvaises Herbes des Petites Antilles. Paris, France: Département d'Économie et Sociologie Rurales, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique. 214 pp.

Gabuin T G, Abdul S D, Sawa F B, 2014. Preliminary observations on weeds of maize (Zea mays L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) fields in Bauchi. Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science. 9 (11), 385-388. http://www.arpnjournals.com/jabs/research_papers/rp_2014/jabs_1114_690.pdf

Gonzalez G, Webb ME, 1989. (Manual para la Identificacion y Control de Malezas)., Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical.

Grice A C, Lawes R A, Abbott B N, Nicholas D M, Whiteman L V, 2004. How abundant and widespread are riparian weeds in the dry tropics of north-east Queensland? In: Weed management: balancing people, planet, profit. 14th Australian Weeds Conference, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia, 6-9 September 2004: papers and proceedings. [ed. by Sindel B M, Johnson S B]. Sydney, Australia: Weed Society of New South Wales. 173-175.

Hall DW, Vandiver VV, 1991. Bristly starbur, Acanthospermum hispidum DC. SP37., Florida, USA: Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

Henderson M, Anderson JG, 1966. Common Weeds in South Africa., South Africa: Department of Agricultural and Technical Services.

Holm L, Doll J, Holm E, Pancho J, Herberger J, 1997. World weeds: natural histories and distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons. xv + 1129 pp.

Holm L, Pancho J V, Herberger J P, Plucknett D L, 1979. A geographical atlas of world weeds. New York, Chichester (), Brisbane, Toronto, UK: John Wiley and Sons. xlix + 391 pp.

Kashina B D, Mabagala R B, Mpunami A A, 2002. Reservoir weed hosts of tomato yellow leaf curl Begomovirus from Tanzania. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection. 35 (4), 269-278. DOI:10.1080/03235400216134

Kostermans A J G H, Wirjahardja S, Dekker R J, 1987. The weeds: description, ecology and control. In: Weeds of rice in Indonesia. [ed. by Soerjani M, Kostermans AJGH, Tjitrosoepomo G]. Jakarta, Indonesia: Balai Pustaka. 24-565.

Lorenzi H, 1982. Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais. Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi. 425 pp.

Mariappan V, Narayanasamy P, 1972. Acanthospermum hispidum DC., a new host of tomato leaf curl virus. Madras Agricultural Journal. 59 (6), 355-357.

Marzocca A, 1979. (Manual de Malezas)., Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Hemisferio Sur.

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Miller I L, Schultz G C, 1997. Goat's head (Acanthospermum hispidum). In: Agnote (Darwin), Darwin, Australia: Department of Industries and Fisheries, Northern Territory. 1 pp.

Moody K, 1989. Weeds reported in rice in South and Southeast Asia. Manila, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute. 442 pp.

Nayak S K, Satapathy K B, 2015. Diversity, uses and origin of invasive alien plants in Dhenkanal district of Odisha, India. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences. 4 (2), 21-27. http://www.isca.in/IJBS/Archive/v4/i2/4.ISCA-IRJBS-2014-223.pdf

Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan: National Plant Protection Centre. vi + 236 pp.

Parsons W T, Cuthbertson E G, 1992. Noxious weeds of Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Inkarta Press. 692 pp.

Phillips M, 1991. A guide to the arable weeds of Botswana. In: A guide to the arable weeds of Botswana. Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of Agriculture. xii + 159 pp.

Rao J V S, Reddy K R, Kumar P J, 1987. Phytosociological studies on weeds of groundnut in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh. Indian Journal of Ecology. 14 (1), 67-71.

Seebens H, Blackburn T M, Dyer E E, Genovesi P, Hulme P E, Jeschke J M, Pagad S, Pyšek P, Winter M, Arianoutsou M, Bacher S, Blasius B, Brundu G, Capinha C, Celesti-Grapow L, Dawson W, Dullinger S, Fuentes N, Jäger H, Kartesz J, Kenis M, Kreft H, Kühn I, Lenzner B, Liebhold A, Mosena A (et al), 2017. No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nature Communications. 8 (2), 14435. http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14435

Stroud A, Parker C, 1989. A weed identification guide for Ethiopia. In: A weed identification guide for Ethiopia. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization. 278 pp.

Subbaiah H, Nanjappa H V, Ramachandrappa B K, 1995. Chemical weed control studies under sole and intercropping systems in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 29 (4), 320-326.

Terry P J, 1981. Weeds and their control in the Gambia. Tropical Pest Management. 27 (1), 44-52.

Terry P J, Michieka R W, 1987. Magugu ya Afrika Mashariki. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. xiii + 194 pp.

USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx

USDA-NRCS, 2005. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov

Vergaças P S R, Ferreira A B M, Franco D A de S, Leite L G, Campos W N, Harakava R, Bueno Júnior C, 2018. Survey of Phaeomoniella chlamydospora in vineyard weeds. Summa Phytopathologica. 44 (3), 218-222. DOI:10.1590/0100-5405/180135

Wang Z R, 1990. Farmland Weeds in China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.

Wells M J, Balsinhas A A, Joffe H, Engelbrecht V M, Harding G, Stirton C H, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in southern Africa incorporating the national weed list of South Africa. Memoirs, Botanical Survey of South Africa. v + 658pp.

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Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur)

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