Acanthospermum hispidum (bristly starbur)
Index
- Pictures
- Identity
- Summary of Invasiveness
- Taxonomic Tree
- Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
- Description
- Plant Type
- Distribution
- Distribution Table
- History of Introduction and Spread
- Risk of Introduction
- Habitat
- Habitat List
- Hosts/Species Affected
- Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
- Biology and Ecology
- Latitude/Altitude Ranges
- Air Temperature
- Rainfall
- Rainfall Regime
- Soil Tolerances
- Notes on Natural Enemies
- Pathway Vectors
- Plant Trade
- Impact Summary
- Impact
- Environmental Impact
- Impact: Biodiversity
- Social Impact
- Risk and Impact Factors
- Uses
- Uses List
- Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
- Prevention and Control
- References
- Distribution Maps
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Top of pagePreferred Scientific Name
- Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (1836)
Preferred Common Name
- bristly starbur
Other Scientific Names
- Acanthospermum humile Chev.
International Common Names
- English: goat's head; star burr; Texas cockspur; upright starbur
- Spanish: corona de la reina; cuagrilla
- French: herbe savane
- Portuguese: carrapicho-de-carneiro
Local Common Names
- Argentina: cuajrilla; torito
- Bolivia: espinoso; estrella; tacuo
- Brazil: amor de negro; cabeca de boi; camboeiro; carrapicho de carneiro; chifre de carneiro; chifre de veado; espinho de agulha; espinho de cigano; federacão; poejo de praia; retirante
- Colombia: carrapichno; carrapicho rasteiro
- Dominican Republic: mala mujer
- East Africa: jina la kawaida
- India: kattu nerinji; saroto
- Mauritius: herbe tricorne
- Nigeria: kasinyawo
- Paraguay: toro rati
- South Africa: donkieklits; regop sterklits
- USA: bristly starbur; goathead
- Zambia: kanjata; nchesa; nseeto
- Zimbabwe: sibama yauli
EPPO code
- ACNHI (Acanthospermum hispidum)
- ACNHU (Acanthospermum humile)
Summary of Invasiveness
Top of pageTaxonomic Tree
Top of page- Domain: Eukaryota
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Phylum: Spermatophyta
- Subphylum: Angiospermae
- Class: Dicotyledonae
- Order: Asterales
- Family: Asteraceae
- Genus: Acanthospermum
- Species: Acanthospermum hispidum
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Top of pageDescription
Top of pageDistribution
Top of pageDistribution Table
Top of pageThe distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report.
Last updated: 25 Feb 2021Continent/Country/Region | Distribution | Last Reported | Origin | First Reported | Invasive | Reference | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa |
|||||||
Angola | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Benin | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Botswana | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Congo, Democratic Republic of the | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Côte d'Ivoire | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Ethiopia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Gambia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Ghana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guinea | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Guinea-Bissau | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Kenya | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1945 | Invasive | |||
Liberia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Madagascar | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Malawi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mali | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mauritius | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Mozambique | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Namibia | Present | Introduced | |||||
Niger | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Nigeria | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Senegal | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sierra Leone | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Somalia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South Africa | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Tanzania | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Uganda | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Zambia | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Vernon (1983) | |||
Zimbabwe | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Asia |
|||||||
Bhutan | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
China | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Yunnan | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | Original citation: Wang et al., 1990 | |||
India | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Andhra Pradesh | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Gujarat | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Karnataka | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1917 | Invasive | |||
-Odisha | Present | ||||||
-Tamil Nadu | Present, Widespread | Introduced | 1917 | Invasive | |||
Indonesia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Irian Jaya | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Java | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Myanmar | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Sri Lanka | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Thailand | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Europe |
|||||||
France | Present, Localized | Introduced | |||||
Russia | Present | Present based on regional distribution. | |||||
-Russian Far East | Present, Localized | Introduced | Original citation: Buch & Shvydkya, 1989 | ||||
North America |
|||||||
Antigua and Barbuda | Present | Native | |||||
Belize | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
Canada | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Costa Rica | Present | Native | |||||
Dominica | Present | Native | |||||
El Salvador | Present | Native | |||||
Guadeloupe | Present, Widespread | Native | Invasive | ||||
Guatemala | Present | Native | |||||
Honduras | Present | Native | |||||
Martinique | Present | Native | |||||
Montserrat | Present, Widespread | Native | |||||
Nicaragua | Present | Native | |||||
Puerto Rico | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
Saint Kitts and Nevis | Present | Native | |||||
Trinidad and Tobago | Present, Localized | Native | Invasive | ||||
U.S. Virgin Islands | Present | Native | |||||
United States | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Alabama | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Arizona | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Florida | Present, Widespread | Introduced | Invasive | First reported: 1800s | |||
-Georgia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Hawaii | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Louisiana | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Mississippi | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Jersey | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New Mexico | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-North Carolina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Oregon | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Carolina | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Texas | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Virginia | Present | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
Oceania |
|||||||
Australia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-New South Wales | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Northern Territory | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Queensland | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-South Australia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
-Western Australia | Present, Localized | Introduced | Invasive | ||||
South America |
|||||||
Argentina | Present | Native | |||||
Bolivia | Present | Native | |||||
Brazil | Present, Widespread | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Alagoas | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Amazonas | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Bahia | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Ceara | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Espirito Santo | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Goias | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Maranhao | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Mato Grosso | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Minas Gerais | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Paraiba | Present | ||||||
-Parana | Present | ||||||
-Pernambuco | Present | ||||||
-Piaui | Present | ||||||
-Rio Grande do Norte | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Rio Grande do Sul | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Santa Catarina | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Sao Paulo | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
-Sergipe | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
Colombia | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
French Guiana | Present | Native | |||||
Guyana | Present | Native | |||||
Paraguay | Present | Native | |||||
Peru | Present | Native | Invasive | ||||
Suriname | Present | Native | |||||
Venezuela | Present | Native |
History of Introduction and Spread
Top of pageRisk of Introduction
Top of pageA. hispidum is listed as a prohibited or restricted species for the states of Western Australia and Northern Territories in Australia, and for Hawaii, USA.
Habitat
Top of pageHabitat List
Top of pageCategory | Sub-Category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Top of pageHost Plants and Other Plants Affected
Top of pagePlant name | Family | Context | References |
---|---|---|---|
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra) | Malvaceae | Other | |
Ananas comosus (pineapple) | Bromeliaceae | Main | |
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Citrus | Rutaceae | Other | |
Eleusine coracana (finger millet) | Poaceae | Other | |
Glycine max (soyabean) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Gossypium (cotton) | Malvaceae | Main | |
Helianthus annuus (sunflower) | Asteraceae | Main | |
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) | Euphorbiaceae | Other | |
Hordeum distichon (two-rowed barley) | Poaceae | Other | |
Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Other | |
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) | Solanaceae | Other | |
Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean) | Fabaceae | Main | |
Pisum sativum (pea) | Fabaceae | Other | |
Prunus persica (peach) | Rosaceae | Other | |
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Main | |
Sesamum indicum (sesame) | Pedaliaceae | Other | |
Solanum melongena (aubergine) | Solanaceae | Other | |
Solanum tuberosum (potato) | Solanaceae | Other | |
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) | Poaceae | Other | |
Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Other | |
Vitis (grape) | Vitaceae | Other | |
Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Main |
Biology and Ecology
Top of pageA. hispidum is a prolific seed producer; a pure stand can contain more than one million plants/ha, producing one billion seeds, weighing almost 10 tonnes (Schwerzel, 1970). After burial for one year, 80% of seed remains viable. Freshly harvested seed has 36% germination, dropping to 15% after dry storage for one year (Holm et al., 1997 - citing the work of P Thomas in Zimbabwe during 1975-82). Most seeds of A. hispidum emerge within three years of production and all seeds die within eight years whether the field is cultivated or not (Schwerzel and Thomas, 1979; Voll et al. 2001). Garcia and Sharif (1995a,b) showed that seeds were generally dormant immediately after being collected. The achenes responded positively to light, and germination was equally promoted by red and far-red light. The germination was highest in the temperature range 20-25°C. Seeds also responded to scarification.
Seedlings emerge over an extended period in the presence of adequate soil moisture and when temperatures are high enough (20-30°C). Subsequent growth is rapid, the first fruit appearing 35-40 days after emergence, seed maturation occurring 45-50 days later (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).
Biomass and seed production are reduced when A. hispidum grows in the shade. This probably accounts for its reduced competitiveness in mixed cropping systems compared with crop monocultures (Shetty et al., 1982).
Reproductive Biology
A. hispidum is monoecious, having male flowers in the centre and female flowers on the outside of the inflorescence. Self-pollination and cross-pollination occur by wind. The spiny achenes (burrs) are readily dispersed on the wool and fur of animals and through contamination of hay and crop residues. They are also carried considerable distances by streams and floodwaters.
Environmental Requirements
A. hispidum apparently requires a certain minimum warmth to germinate and thrive. In South Africa it occurs in the summer rainfall areas but not so much where there is a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall. It would presumably be susceptible to frost, but, as an annual, it can occur in temperate areas with very low minimum temperatures, as the summer temperatures, even in e.g. Northeast Russia, can regularly exceed 20°C.
A. hispidum is especially common on very light sandy soils, but is by no means restricted to this soil type, occurring as a serious weed on a wide range of soils, including clays.
Associations
A. hispidum is an alternative host for several crop pests, see the section on Economic Impact for further details.
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Top of pageLatitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude Lower (m) | Altitude Upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
500 |
Rainfall
Top of pageParameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 0 | 7 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 500 | 1500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Top of pageSoil drainage
- free
Soil reaction
- acid
- alkaline
- neutral
Soil texture
- heavy
- light
- medium
Notes on Natural Enemies
Top of pagePathway Vectors
Top of pageVector | Notes | Long Distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions | Achenes adhere to clothing and baggage | Yes | ||
Containers and packaging - wood | Achenes adhere to packing | Yes | ||
Land vehicles | In ship ballast water, also associated with road- and railsides | Yes |
Plant Trade
Top of pagePlant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
True seeds (inc. grain) | fruits; seeds | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Impact Summary
Top of pageCategory | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | Negative |
Biodiversity (generally) | None |
Crop production | Negative |
Environment (generally) | None |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | Negative |
Livestock production | Negative |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | None |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | Negative |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact
Top of pageCrop yields are decreased in the presence of A. hispidum which competes for water, nutrients and light. Walker et al. (1989) illustrated a negative linear relationship between groundnut seed yield and the period of interference from A. hispidum. Each week of interference reduced seed yields by 20, 205 and 134 kg/ha, respectively, over three consecutive years, and as little as two weeks of interference caused significant seed yield reductions. Full-season interference from 8 and 64 A. hispidum plants per 7.5 m of crop row reduced groundnut seed yields by 14% and 50%, respectively. Chivinge (1990) recorded losses in soyabean due to A. hispidum planted in pots the same day, but no loss when the weed was planted after 11 or 22 days. Congo, N'zama and Tombé (1999) studied different ratios of soyabean and A. hispidum at a range of densities and concluded that the two species share the same resources without antagonistic interactions. Holm et al. (1997) note that this is a C3 plant with relatively inefficient photosynthesis but that its competitive effect may be enhance by allelopathic influence. Crop losses are also caused by interference from A. hispidum at harvest time. This is a major cause of soyabean yield losses in Brazil (Davis et al., 1979).
A. hispidum is an alternative host for a number of crop pests and diseases including: Heliothis peltigera and H. armigera [Helicoverpa armigera] (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Patel et al., 1971; Manjunath et al., 1976); Calidea dregii (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), a cotton pest in Tanzania (Reed and Kayumbo, 1965); the soyabean pests Euschistus heros and Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) (Panizzi and Rossi, 1991; Mourao and Panizzi, 2000); Tomato leaf curl virus [Tomato yellow leaf curl virus] (Mariappan and Narayanasamy, 1972; Sastry, 1984); Tobacco leaf curl virus (Mariappan and Narayanasamy, 1977; Swanson et al., 1998); Groundnut ringspot virus, the causal agent of spotted wilt in tobacco, (Nunes-e-Silves et al., 2000); Xanthomonas campestris pv. sesami (Nayak and Sharma, 1980); and Verticillium albo-atrum, a wilt-causing pathogen (da Silva and Tokeshi, 1979).
Environmental Impact
Top of pageImpact: Biodiversity
Top of pageSocial Impact
Top of pageRisk and Impact Factors
Top of page- Invasive in its native range
- Proved invasive outside its native range
- Highly adaptable to different environments
- Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
- Highly mobile locally
- Has high reproductive potential
- Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
- Negatively impacts agriculture
- Negatively impacts human health
- Negatively impacts animal health
- Competition - monopolizing resources
- Pest and disease transmission
- Produces spines, thorns or burrs
- Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Uses
Top of pageSimilarities to Other Species/Conditions
Top of pageAcanthospermum glabratum is a trailing, annual herb, uncommon in Kenya in the 1970s but becoming quite a common weed in central Kenya by 1990 (PJ Terry, Long Ashton Research Station, University of Bristol, personal communication, 1998).
Prevention and Control
Top of pageDue to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control
Quarantine must be considered an integral part of any control programme. All animals brought onto a farm, as well as those transferred from infested to burr-free parts of the farm, must be checked and any burrs removed (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).
Seeds of A. hispidum lose their viability within eight years (Schwerzel and Thomas, 1979), so that prevention of seeding will eventually exhaust the soil seedbank and eradicate the weed. Seedbank depletion can be achieved by ploughing to bury existing seeds to a depth of at least 10 cm, followed by the sowing of an appropriate perennial pasture. Any seedlings which emerge in the pasture should be removed by pulling, hoeing or with herbicides (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).
Cultivation or slashing prior to seed set is beneficial but slashing after seed set will quickly spread the plant (Miller and Schultz, 1997). Mowing A. hispidum and other weeds growing through a groundnut crop was shown by Wehtje et al. (1999) to be beneficial as an alternative to a late post-emergence treatment.
Chemical Control
Herbicides that are reputed to give control of A. hispidum include: 2,4-D, diolamine, acetochlor, atrazine, bentazon, butachlor, cyanazine, diuron, fluometuron, imazethapyr, lactofen, linuron, mefluidide, metolachlor, napropamide, oxyfluorfen, paraquat, pendimathalin, simazine and terbutryn. Pendimethalin is reported to be selective against A. hispidum in groundnut (Gowda et al., 2002), though Reddy et al. (2002) found A. hispidum to be less susceptible than other broad-leaved weeds to pendimethalin, fluchloralin and metolachlor in field bean. A. hispidum was shown by Luo and Matsumoto (2002) to be somewhat more susceptible to the graminicide fluazifop-butyl than other broad-leaved weeds but Gowda et al. (2002) did not confirm this in the field. Foloni and Christoffoletti (1999) indicate promising selectivity in soyabean for the new herbicides carfentrazone and carfentrazone-ester.
References
Top of pageAdams CD, 1963. Compositae. In: Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Hepper FN, eds. Flora of West Tropical Africa, Volume 2, Second edition. London, UK: Crown Agents.
Ballais C, 1969. Plants adventices de la Gironde. Toulouse, France: Monde Plantes, 365:5-9.
Banda EA; Morris B, 1986. Common Weeds of Malawi. Lilongwe, Malawi: The University of Malawi.
Berhaut J, 1967. Flore du Senegal. Dakar, Senegal: Editions Clairafrique.
Bhattacharyya G; Pandya SM, 1996. Distribution studies on exotic weeds of Saurashtra (India). Advances in Plant Sciences, 9:29-32.
Blundell M, 1992. Wild Flowers of East Africa. London, UK: Harper Collins.
Burkhill HM, 1985. The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. I. Families A-D. Kew, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens.
Chakravarti S, 1963. Weed control in India. Indian Agriculturalist, 7:23-58.
Drummond RB, 1984. Arable Weeds of Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe: Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe.
Gonzalez G; Webb ME, 1989. Manual para la Identificacion y Control de Malezas. Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical.
Hall DW; Vandiver VV, 1991. Bristly starbur, Acanthospermum hispidum DC. SP37. Florida, USA: Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.
Henderson M; Anderson JG, 1966. Common Weeds in South Africa. South Africa: Department of Agricultural and Technical Services.
Holm L; Doll J; Holm E; Pancho J; Herberger J, 1997. World Weeds. Natural Histories and Distribution. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Lloyd D, 1956. Remarks on the possible biological control programme with the weed Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Canadian Entomologist, 88:613-622.
Luo XiaoYong; Matsumoto H, 2002. Susceptibility of a broad-leaved weed, Acanthospermum hispidum, to the grass herbicide fluazifop-butyl. Weed Biology and Management, 2: 98-103.
Mariappan V; Narayanasamy P, 1972. Acanthospermum hispidum DC., a new host of tomato leaf curl virus. Madras Agricultural Journal, 59:355-357.
Marzocca A, 1979. Manual de Malezas. 3rd edition. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Hemisferio Sur.
Miller IL; Schultz GC, 1997. Goat's head (Acanthospermum hispidum). Agnote (Darwin), No. 454:1 pp.
Nunes-e-Silva J; Pio-Ribeiro G; Andrade GP, 2000. Efficiency of measures of integrated control against spotted wilt of tobacco in Arapiraca, Alagoas, Brazil. (in Portuguese) Fitopatologia Brasileira, 25: 664-667.
Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp.
Reed W; Kayumbo H, 1965. Detailed studies of pests. Tanzania Western Cotton Growing Area, Progress Report Experimental Station, 13-16.
Schwerzel P, 1970. Weed phenology and life-span observations. PANS, 16:511-515.
Tadulingam C; Venkataryana G, 1955. A Handbook of some South Indian Weeds, No. 38/1954. Madras, India: Directorate of Agriculture.
Terry PJ, 1981. Weeds and their control in the Gambia. Tropical Pest Management, 27(1):44-52.
USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2005. The PLANTS Database. Baton Rouge, USA: National Plant Data Center. http://plants.usda.gov.
Wang ZR, 1990. Farmland Weeds in China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.
Wehtje G; Wells LW; Choate JH; Martin NR Jr; Curtis JM, 1999. Mowing as a weed control supplement to herbicides and cultivation in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Weed Technology, 13: 139-143.
Wells MJ; Balsinhas AA; Joffe H; Engelbrecht VM; Harding G; Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute.
Distribution References
Adams CD, 1963. Compositae. In: Flora of West Tropical Africa, 2 (Second) [ed. by Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, Hepper FN]. London, UK: Crown Agents.
Ballais C, 1969. Plants adventices de la Gironde., 365 Toulouse, France: Monde Plantes. 5-9.
Banda EA, Morris B, 1986. Common Weeds of Malawi., Lilongwe, Malawi: The University of Malawi.
Berhaut J, 1967. (Flore du Senegal)., Dakar, Senegal: Editions Clairafrique.
Blundell M, 1992. Wild Flowers of East Africa., London, UK: Harper Collins.
CABI, Undated. Compendium record. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated a. CABI Compendium: Status inferred from regional distribution. Wallingford, UK: CABI
CABI, Undated b. CABI Compendium: Status as determined by CABI editor. Wallingford, UK: CABI
Drummond RB, 1984. Arable Weeds of Zimbabwe., Harare, Zimbabwe: Agricultural Research Trust of Zimbabwe.
Gonzalez G, Webb ME, 1989. (Manual para la Identificacion y Control de Malezas)., Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical.
Hall DW, Vandiver VV, 1991. Bristly starbur, Acanthospermum hispidum DC. SP37., Florida, USA: Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.
Henderson M, Anderson JG, 1966. Common Weeds in South Africa., South Africa: Department of Agricultural and Technical Services.
Marzocca A, 1979. (Manual de Malezas)., Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Hemisferio Sur.
Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan: National Plant Protection Centre. vi + 236 pp.
Terry P J, 1981. Weeds and their control in the Gambia. Tropical Pest Management. 27 (1), 44-52.
USDA-ARS, 2005. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2005. The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
Wang Z R, 1990. Farmland Weeds in China. Beijing, China: Agricultural Publishing House.
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